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Naval Science seated in a marine car.
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PREFACE.In Great Britain the naval arts are indigenous, and flourish with a superiority, which is the result of a vast demand for their various labours. But, singular though it is, the British Nation cannot boast of having taught or considerably improved them by the efforts of her press. Whatever may have been the cause of this does not at present much import; although curiosity would excite us to investigate, why these subjects have more engaged the attention of French authors: perhaps it might be ultimately traced to the consciousness of practical superiority, or to the different national characteristic; for the reserve of an Englishman is almost proverbial. The germe of this work was a small and incomplete treatise on sail making, which some years ago came into the possession of the publisher. In the course of rendering that fit for general use, the reciprocal dependence of the naval arts was discerned; and it was instantly resolved to collect them all together, although public materials were few, and private communications were with difficulty to be obtained. The subject of ship-building seemed capable of being, with propriety, treated as a distinct pursuit; and these considerations, added to the reflection that much was already known upon that subject, produced the present labours upon the arts relative to or connected with the rigging of a ship. When thus far advanced, a seaman rebuked the deficiency, by asking if a ship, completely rigged, was to remain an inert body. Of what use, said he, are these masts, and stays, and braces; these blocks, and sails, and anchors? Pray put your complex machine in motion; send her to sea, and send her thither with directions, to act singly or in fleets. Hence was perceived the necessity of an union between the naval arts and the purposes to which they are applied. This little history of our progress will perhaps strikingly illustrate their intimate connection. The seaman, who knows what can be and is performed by the naval artist, and who knows the construction and powers of the minutest parts of a ship’s rigging, becomes a better judge of how the naval arts may be improved, or how more effectually directed to the purposes of seamanship. While the naval artist, on the other hand, who is acquainted with the objects of a seaman’s pursuit, will be better enabled so to direct the arts he professes, as to facilitate the attainment of those objects. Thus each reflects a light upon the other; and, from the study of both, solid improvements in naval science are to be expected. We speak not without foundation; it is from this joint knowledge, that Captain Edward Pakenham produced his excellent inventions concerning masts and rudders. The vanity of man makes him talk of the difficulties he has surmounted; the greater the difficulties, the more is his vanity gratified. Let it not, however, be attributed to this passion, if we mention a few of those impediments that presented themselves to us; but rather let them be taken as reasons, for our soliciting indulgence towards any errors that may, from that cause, have crept into the work. Actual workmen in each art were necessarily consulted, and their differing methods required comparison by others, in order that correct principles might be established, and the best practice explained. The disinclination of many to be open in their communications, from the possession of |
supposed secrets, has often opposed the advancement of these volumes, and often chilled the ardour of our perseverance. Nor was the path always smooth, where even liberality was found; for the best practical workman and the best practical seaman were generally inexpert in the use of the pencil; they could describe, but not delineate; and artists were therefore employed, whose task was to elucidate by drawings the most complex figures and operations. Hundreds of the technical phrases were vainly sought for in the common dictionaries, and even in the maritime vocabularies; and thence it became necessary to explain and prefix them to each art. The language of the workman was not sufficiently exact for the public eye, and this was obliged to pass under revision. The publications which at present exist upon the making of masts, ropes, anchors, sails, blocks, and upon rigging, are in the whole extremely few and incorrect: from them, therefore, much assistance could not be derived; making an exception, however, in favour of the Traite du Greement of M. Lescallier, which afforded some hints that corresponded with the practice in the British navy, and which were of course adopted. Thus, from the number of objects and of agents, the tediousness of our progress may be conceived; but there labours will be amply repaid, if our theories are acknowledged to be (what we hope they are) theories demonstrated, and our practice of the different arts, the practice of their best artificers. Upon the two subjects of seamanship and naval tactics we owe many obligations to the writers of France. It has been long admitted that M. Bouguer has given the true theory of working ships, and that M. Morogues is the most enlightened author on naval tactics. M. Bouguer is too mathematically abstruse for general use: of more benefit, therefore, is the work of M. Bourde de Villehuet, named Le Manoeuvrier; because this latter gentleman has treated the laws of motion in fluids with regard to ships, and the effects of the different sails and of the rudder, in a manner equally correct and more accessible to general comprehension; and he has furthermore shewn the exact correspondence of practice with theory. From these sources we have drawn much; but not from these alone: we have resorted to writers and seamen of our own country, and gained from them much excellent practice. The naval tactics will, we trust, be found more complete than any hitherto published; for all that is known of them, from M. Morogues to the Viscount de Grenier, is systematically arranged, and greatly elucidated by numerous engravings. The foster-parent of this work is none other than the publisher. In the long course of his business, particularly confined to maritime and nautical productions, he became acquainted with the wishes and the wants of the naval world. Sincerely desirous to contribute the efforts of his station to the promotion of maritime science, he has employed years in collecting materials for it; he sought out the most skilful in their arts, and the most judicious in the sciences. And at length, with grateful thanks to many distinguished characters in the british navy who honoured him with their communications, and to those liberal naval artists who yielded him their assistance, he delivers, to the British nation, the elements and practice of rigging and seamanship. |
CONTENTS.the explanation of the frontispiece.
The female figure represents Naval Science seated in a marine car. The triton is emblematical of the power of the ocean, as the figure at the back of the car is that of the winds. Both seem to confess the dominion of Naval Science, by conducting the car in obedience to her commands. MAST-MAKING. – Vol. I.
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the reader will please to attend to the following corrections, for the
tables of standing and running rigging, which are at the end of the second volume. ERROR in the Tonnage of 98 and 90 Gun Ships: 2290 and 2164 Tons respectively should be 1931 and 1827 Tons respectively. In the Table for a Cutter of 200 Tons, add, after Outer Tye, 6 in.| 19 1/2 fathoms| as the circumference and length of the rope necessary for the outer Tye. When a Cutter has a Topmast with Cross-trees, it has two pair of topmast shrouds and one pair of backstays, or else three pair of topmast shrouds only. In the Table for a Ketch of 150 Tons, page 147, Length, &c. should be Length of the first warp of the Main Shrouds. By a recent Order of the Navy Board, the Main and Fore Sails of all Ships in the Royal Navy are to have double tacks; for which the allowed quantity is twice the length of the single tacks, but the rope is to be of the same size as that used for the sheets. For Tarred Lines three-quarter rope is commonly used; the length of each of these lines is generally 108 Feet; and, therefore, whenever it directs one, two, or three, tarred lines, it is meant that there should be once, twice, or thrice, that length. Sheets and Buntlines for Top Gallant Sails are omitted in three Tables, because they are always taken out of the Stores allowed for Sea. To each set of Main and Fore Topmast Shrouds, a sister block is allowed. No Seizings are allowed but for such blocks as require rope: all other blocks are to be seized with marline or spunyarn, allowed for fitting the rigging in the house. All running rigging had better be got out in the coil, and cut to proper lengths when reeved on-board. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
MAST-MAKING. |
Tools for Mast Making / Sheer Hulk.
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DESCRIPTION, USE, AND POSITION, OF MASTS, BOWSPRITS,YARDS, &c. Masts are made of long fir-trees cylindrically rounded: their sides, curving lengthways, form an arch of an ellipsis, resembling the shaft of a column, elevated perpendicularly upon the keelson, to which are attached the yards, sails, and rigging. Those made of single trees are called pole-masts; those made of several trees joined togethermade-masts. In masting it is to be observed, that the complete height of a mast is gained by erecting one mast on the top of another. The one fixed upon the keelson is called the lower or standing mast; the next in height above that the topmast; the next the topgallant-mast; and it is sometimes prolonged by a royal-mast, used in light breezes. Masts are to extend the sails by means of their yards. When the number of masts is multiplied, the yards must be shortened, or they would entangle each other in working: by this, too, the sails would be narrowed, and would receive too small a portion of wind for the force required. If, on the contrary, there is not a sufficient number of masts, the yards would be unmanageable from their size. Experience has therefore proved, that, in large vessels, three masts and a bowsprit, in smaller vessels, two masts and a bowsprit, and in the smallest, one mast and a bowsprit, are the most advantageous numbers for nautical purposes. The best position of the masts is that from whence there results an equilibrium between the resistance of the water on the body of the ship, on one part, and of the direction of their effort on the other. The masts are thus generally placed in the royal navy. The centre of the foremast to be abaft the aftside of the rabbet of the stem, or inside of the plank on the lower deck, one ninth part of the length of the lower deck. The centre of the main-mast to be abaft the aftside the rabbet of the stem on the lower deck, five ninths of its length: and the centre of the mizen-mast to be abaft the aftside of the rabbet of the stem on the lower deck, seventeen twentieths of its length. |
In the merchant-service, they are not so strictly confined respecting the position of the mainmast, though it is generally placed near the midships of the ship; but artificers differ widely in placing the fore and mizen masts. The inclination of the lower masts is governed by the trim of the ship. Experience has proved, that some will sail best with their masts raking forward, others, aft; consequently, no strict rule can be laid down; but in general they rake aft. It is the opinion of many, that short and broad vessels, with one or two masts, should have that mast nearest the centre rake much aft; and in long floored vessels the masts should be upright. When masts touch the partners, they are liable to spring or be carried away. Brigs, or vessels with two masts, have the main-mast placed about two-thirds of their whole length abaft the head of the stem, and the foremast three twentieths of the above length. The main-mast inclines aft at the head, from a perpendicular with the keel, three quarters of an inch in every yard of its length; the foremast a full eighth part of an inch in every yard of its length. For cutters, or yards with one mast, the inclination is one inch and a half to every yard in the length, and their bowsprits lie nearly in an horizontal direction. A BOWSPRIT is a large boom or mast, cylindrically rounded, except at the outer end, which is square; it runs out over the stem, and stives or rises so as to make an angle of nearly thirty-six degrees above a horizontal line. Its principal use is to support the foremast by its stays, and carry sail to govern the fore part of the ship. YARDS are long pieces of fir-timber, hanging to the masts or bowsprits, to expand the sails. All square yards hang athwart the masts at right angles, except studdingsail-yards, which hang parallel under the extremities of the other yards. Lateen yards hang to the masts obliquely. The yards of a ship are all square, except the mizen. All yards, except lower and topsail yards, are cylindrically rounded, and taper from the middle to the yard-arms; the others are formed eight square in the middle, and from thence to the ends like the frustum of a cone. BOOMS are long poles, run out from different masts and yards, to expand the feet of particular sails. Some booms taper from the middle to the ends, like the yards, and others from one third their length to the outer end. GAFF. A short pole projecting from the mizenmast of ships, except those of the line, to expand the head of the mizen and driver sails; and from the main-masts of brigs and other vessels, to expand the head of all fore and aft mainsails. |
EXPLANATION OF TERMS
USED IN MAST-MAKING, ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED. ADZE, a sharp tool to trim smooth, after an axe or saw. AFT, the hinder part of the ship, or that nearest the stern. ARM, each end of a bibb. AUGER, an instrument to bore holes with. AXE, a sharp tool to trim off rough wood. AXIS, a real or supposed line through the centre of a body, about which it may turn. BATTENS, thin pieces of oak or fir, nailed on to mast-heads and the midship-part of yards. BAULKS, short fir timber. BEARDING is diminishing any piece from a given line on its surface to make the thickness less on the edge. BED, the place of the greatest diameter in bowsprits; and the main piece of barrel-screws, through which the puppets work. BEES, pieces of elm plank bolted to the outer ends of bowsprits. BEVELLINGS are angles that differ from right angles, called, by workmen, either under or standing bevellings. By the former is meant an acute, and by the latter an obtuse, angle. Bevellings are taken by an instrument called a bevel, which resembles a square, only the tongue is moveable, and fixes to the angle required. To transfer it, or set it off on the piece, is the same operation as by the square. BIBBS, or brackets, are made of elm plank, and bolted to the hounds of masts, as supporters to the trestle-trees. BLOCK, an eight-square or round part below the heeling of main and fore topmasts. BLOCKS, shells, containing a sheave or sheaves. BLOCKS, short pieces, laid under a mast, to raise it from the ground. BOARD, timber sawed to a less thickness than plank, as one inch and under. BOLSTER, a sort of pillow made of fir, fastened on each side the mast-head, to prevent the shrouds chafing against the trestle-trees. BOLTS, cylindrical pins of iron. The commonest have small round heads, and are used to unite two or more pieces together. Some have round flat heads, called saucer-heads, with a mortise in the other end, or point, and are used to fasten moveable pieces to fixed ones; others have an eye at one end, for lashing or hooking blocks, &c. and are driven in mast-heads, yards, caps, &c. Some have a square part left at the back of the eye, that they may not be driven on the eye, and endanger splitting. BOOM-IRONS are rings fastened to the quarters and extremities of yards, for the studdingsail booms to slide through. BOW, the rounding part of a ship’s side forward. |
BRAIL, a rope used to haul up the sail. BUTT, the lower part next the root of a tree, also the lower ends of any part of made-masts, and the ends of coaks, tablings, haunches, &c. CALLIPERS are compasses with circular legs. CANTING, a term denoting the act of turning any thing over from its former position. CANT-PIECES are used in the angles of the fishes and side-trees, or to supply any part that may prove sappy or rotten. CAP, a thick block of elm timber, with two holes perpendicularly to its length and breadth, and parallel to its thickness, (the foremost hole being round and the after one square,) used to confine two masts together, when one is erected at the head of the other to lengthen it. CARLINGS, pieces of oak timber, about eight feet long and eight inches square, or more, used for framing the partners. CHAMFERING, taking off angles or edges. CHEEKS are projecting parts on each side the mast, to sustain the frame of the top and topmast. CHEEKS, head of the, that part above the stops. CHINSE, to thrust oakum into the seams, with a small iron instrument. CHOCKS, pieces made to fashion out some part wanting, or to place between the head of a lower mast and heel of a topmast. CLEATS, pieces of plank or board of various shapes, for different purposes. Those used for stopping of shores are mostly made of Elm, similar to wedges, but only taper from one side: those for stopping of rigging are haunched on the back with a hollow, from one third the length; the thin end is shaped with a duck’s-bill; these are made of oak, but, for mast heads, of elm. CLEATS, COMB, are straight on the inner edge, and round on the back, with a hollow cavity in the middle. CLEATS, SHROUD, one part is shaped like a belaying- cleat, with two arms, the other part straight, and grooved on the edge to the convexity of the shroud, to which it is seized, having a score cut towards its extremities for the seizing to lie in. CLEATS, SLING, of lower yards, are made with one arm; belaying-cleats with two, one on each side the middle. Thumb-cleats are similar to sling-cleats, but smaller, to hang any thing thereon. CLEATS are nailed wherever wanted, with more or less nails, according to the strain they resist. CLENCHING. Making fast the point of a bolt or nail on a ring or rove of iron, by battering the point and making it spread. COAKS are oblong ridges left on the surface of different pieces of made-masts by cutting away the wood round them; the intermediate part is called the plain. COAKING is uniting two or more pieces together, in the middle, by small tabular pieces, formed from the solid of one piece and sunk exactly the same in the other, the butts of which prevent the pieces drawing asunder lengthways. There are different methods of coaking, as follow. Coak and plain is when a coak is formed, and a plain surface follows between that and the next. Running coaks are coaks continued the whole length along the middle, but answer the above purpose, as the butts of each coak come one third their breadth within and without each other alternately. Chain-coaks are formed one at the end of the other on the opposite sides of the middle-line. See Tabling. |
COAT, pieces of canvas tarred to put round the masts at the partners. CROSS-TREES, pieces of oak timber athwart the upper ends of the lower masts, set in and bolted to the trestle-trees. DEALS are of similar thickness to plank, but the term is confined to fir. DOULING. A method of coaking, by letting pieces into the solid; or uniting two pieces together with tenons. DRAWING-KNIFE. A long narrow edge-tool, with a handle in each end. DRIFT means the difference between the size of a bolt and the hole into which it is to be driven; as, if a bolt be 1-8th of an inch larger than the hole, the bolt is said to have 1-8th drift. And so of a hoop which is to be driven on a mast. DUBBING, reducing or taking wood away with an adze. ELM, wood of singular use when continually exposed either to wet or dry; its grain being tough and curly makes it not liable to split. If felled between November and February it has no sap. It is used in mast-making for caps, bibbs, bees, and part of tops. FACING, letting one piece into another with a rabbet. FAYING, the joining of one piece to another, that the least opening may not appear; it is performed by moulds, bevellings, or by laying one piece on the other, and setting them as close together as possible; then with compasses take the distance they may be asunder, and set that distance, or spoiling, be set off from the surface or edge of the fairest piece on to the sides of the other, at as many places as may be necessary for lineing. if the pieces coak or table together, the thickness of the coaks or tablings must be added to the former gage or spoiling. FERRULE, a small iron hoop, fixed on the extremities of the yards, booms, &c. FILLINGS, pieces used to make a fair curve for the wooldings, between the edges of the front-fish and sides of the mast. FID, a square bar of iron or wood, used to support the weight of the topmast, &c. when erected at the head of the standing mast. FIR, in mastmaking, is the most useful wood for length, size, and lightness. It forms the body of the mast, the spindle, side-trees, fishes, cheeks, fillings, and cant-pieces. Masts are also frequently made of Single trees, as are yards, booms, topmasts, &c. Fir-trees of Riga and Gottenburgh exceed in strength about one tenth those of Norway, and one sixth those of New England: and fir-trees of Scotland exceed in strength those of Norway. Though the Riga and Gottenburgh trees exceed those of New-England in strength, the latter have the advantage in size; as a large mast may be made of a single tree: but masts made of Gottenburgh, Riga, or Norway, trees, are composed of the most substantial parts of several. The value of fir-trees and timber fluctuates; but annexed is a table of the prices given in 1792. FISHES, SIDE, two long pieces of fir, coaked on the opposite sides of a made-mast to give it the diameter required. FISH, FRONT, or paunch, a long piece of fir, hollowed on the inside to the convexity of the mast, and rounded on the back. It fastens to the foreside of lower masts in the middle, and adds security and strength. Fishes are also used in the middle of masts, yards, bowsprits, &c. sprung, or damaged at sea. |
FLAG-STAFFS are light poles, formed by, or erected on, mast-heads; also at the heads and sterns, on which flags are hoisted. FLOORS, the lowest timbers in a ship. FORE AND AFT, from stem to stern, or in that direction. FORELOCKS, small flat wedges of iron, pointed at one end, to drive through mortices in the ends of bolts, to retain their fixed position, and prevent their drawing. FORELOCKS, SPRING, have heads, and are shouldered underneath, to prevent their going through the mortises; they also have thin tongues at the points, as springs, to keep them from coming out: these are used to bolts that often require shifting. FORWARD, the foremost part of the ship, or that nearest the head. GAGE, a measurement taken by a rule or compasses. GAMMONING, a rope that binds the inner quarter of the bowsprit close down upon the stem. GIRTH, the circumference. GUNWALE, a board of elm, nailed to the upper sides of the timbers, at the aft part of a top. The upper flat planks on the sides of a vessel are likewise called the gunwale. HALIARDS, ropes to hoist or lower the gaff, &c. HAUNCH, a sudden decrease in size. HEAD OF THE MAST is the upper part of the mast from the stop of the cheeks. HEEL, the lower end of a mast; the same as butt. HEELING, the square part left at the lower end of a topmast and topgallant mast. HEWING, trimming off the rough from timber, &c. with an axe. HOOK-BUTT, is the surface raised across higher in one place than another. HOOPS are strong circles of iron driven on masts and yards. HOOPS, CLASP, have a hinge in the middle, and fasten together with forelocks through mortises made in the ends. HOOPS, MOULD, those that deviate from a circle. HORSE, a thick iron rod, fastened at the ends to the inside of the stern of vessels that carry a fore and aft mainsail, for the main sheet to travel on; and also across the deck before the mast, for the sheet of a foresail. HOUNDS, the place next under the head of a mast, where it is made more substantial for supporting the trestle-trees and top. JAWS, or HORNS, to the inner ends of gaffs and booms, are semi-circular, to confine them to the mast by embracing half its circumference. JURY-MASTS, masts used instead of the proper ones, in cases of necessity or otherwise. KEELSON, square pieces of timber fayed to the upper part of the floors over the keel. LARBOARD SIDE, when looking forward from the stern, is the left side. |
LEATHERING, prepared leather, dressed close round the circular holes of caps, and the sweep of jaws belonging to booms and gaffs, nailed on the upper and under sides. LINEING, is marking the length, breadth, or depth, of any thing, according to design, by a cord, rubbed with white or red chalk, fastened at the extremities, and forcibly pulled up in the middle, or towards one end, then let fall perpendicularly, if meant to be straight, or thrown sideways to form a curve. To perform the latter with exactness requires practice. MALL, an iron tool to drive bolts with, &c. MALLET, a wooden tool, to drive with. MIDSHIPS, when speaking with regard to the breadth of the vessel, is a supposed line from the stem to the stern-post; but, with regard to the length of the vessel, the broadest part is called the midships, although that is not the middle of its length. MOULDS are made of board to the shape of some design; or to the shape of such pieces as are wanted for making good deficiencies; others for making of hoops are made to the shape and size of the mast, and nailed together at the corners. MOULDED, signifies breadth; or the sides of a piece shaped by a mould. MOUSING, several turns, with a strand, taken round the back of a hook and through an eye in the point, to prevent its unhooking. NAILS, DUMP, are round, and have long flat points. NECK, the arms that support the boom-ring are called the neck of the outer boom-iron. NOCK-EARING, the rope that fastens the nock of the sail. NUTS, small square pieces of iron, with a screw-hole cut in the middle. OAK, the most useful timber for strength and durability, when exposed to the weather. It is used, in mastmaking, for trestle-trees, cross-trees, and open tops. OAKUM, old rope untwisted and picked small. OUT OF WINDING. See Winding. OVOLO, a moulding consisting of a round and hollow. OUTHAULER, a rope that hauls out the tack of the jib, &c. PARTNERS, the place where the deck intersects the mast, which is there made more substantial for wedging the same. But, in mastmaking, it more generally implies the place of the middle-deck, in three-deck ships, and the place of the upper-deck, in two-deck ships; and at that place the given diameter in the Table of Dimensions is applied. Masts with hoops are made one inch larger than the given diameter, two feet each way of the partners, to give the hoops a quicker drift. All masts are to keep the same size as the given diameter at each deck. PIECES, heel, head, or hound, are short pieces to make good some deficiency. PLAIN, an even surface between the coaks. PLANE, a tool to make smooth with. PLANK, broad timber, from four inches to one inch thick. PLUMB, perpendicular. PLUMB-LINE, a line suspending a lump of lead, which keeps it straight and perpendicular: by it is taken, at the sides of masts, &c. the diametrical dimensions, to correspond with the line or lines struck |
on the surface of the upper side, to which it is sawed. When masts are not sawed, the sides are hewed in, at different places, about four feet asunder, until the plumb-line answers with the line struck on the surface; and the rough wood between these divisions is hewed off, to agree with the plumb-line. A mast, or piece to be plumbed, should be placed in such a manner as, when hewed in its direction, may gain the greatest substance clear of sap or rot. PUPPETS, two upright pieces, with a screw cut in the lower ends. QUARTERS, a term given to some of the divisions on a mast, yard, &c. where the different diameters are set off, for lineing, or marking. RABBET, a small square channel cut in the edge of one piece to set in another. The depth of the rabbet to be equal to the thickness set in. RACE, to mark, by the edges of moulds, with a racing knife or points of compasses, upon timber, &c. RACING-KNIFE, a small tool to race with. RAILS are made of wood or iron, and fitted across the aftside of tops, to prevent the men from falling. RAKE, the inclination of the masts from a perpendicular with the keel. RAM-LINE, a long line, (thicker than common) used to gain a straight middle-line upon a tree or mast. It is made fast at one end, and hauled upon at the other till it is quite straight, and then made fast. RIM, a skirting of narrow elm board round the upperside of tops. RIND-GALL, a damage the tree received when young, so that the bark or rind grows in the inner substance of the tree. RING, a small circle of iron, used to put over the point of a bolt, between the wood and the forelock, to prevent its chafing or cutting the wood. ROLLERS, are similar to sheaves, but longer. ROUNDING. In large masts, the sixteen square is divided into four parts, and lined, and those angles dubbed off. Smaller masts, yards, &c. have the angles of the sixteen-square taken off with a drawing-knife, and then are rounded fair and smooth with planes. ROVE, a small square piece of iron, with a hole in the middle, whereon is clenched the point of a nail, to prevent its drawing. SADDLES, semi-circular pieces of wood, shaped and fastened to the upper side of the bowsprit. SAUCER, a bolt with a flat head. SCANTLING, the thickness or depth of a piece of timber. SCARFED, the end of one piece of timber lapped over or set into another, to appear a solid and even surface. SCORE, a notch cut out of any piece of wood, to admit another projecting in a similar shape. SCREWS, bed or barrel, for raising the heads of large masts and fixing the trestle-trees, are made of elm, and consist of two puppets, a bed, and a sole: the puppets are four feet nine inches long, have their lower parts round like a cylinder, and are cut with a screw; their upper part, or head, is larger, and is either eight-square or round, with iron hoops driven on, to prevent their splitting; through these heads are holes, on the different sides, through which long iron pins are thrust; which put them in mo- |
tion by pressing against them, and acting as levers. The bed is a broad thick piece of elm, three times the diameter of the screw in breadth, once the diameter of the screw in thickness, and about six feet in length; with a hole at each end of the bed, for the screws or puppets to work in. Six bolts are driven through the bed, and clenched on a ring to prevent its splitting; two are in the middle, and two at each end. In the sides and ends, mortises are cut for hand-holes. The sole is the same breadth and length as the bed, and half the thickness, with a hole hollowed out at each end for the puppets to work in. Sometimes the sole is thicker, and, instead of holes, has an iron plate, with a hole set into each end, wherein works an iron sprig, that is driven into the heel of the puppet with a shoulder. SCREWS, hand, a box of elm containing cogged iron wheels, of increasing powers. The outer one, which moves the rest, is put in motion by a winch on the outside, and is called either single or double, according to its increasing force. It is sometimes falslely called a jack. SCUTTLE, a square hole cut through a floor, and furnished with a lid or covering. SEAMS, the openings (in which oakum is driven) between the pieces that compose made-masts, yards, &c. SET-OFF, a term used for marking down the distance of any dimension or spoiling from a given place. SETTS, powers made use of, where force is required, to bring or unite two or more pieces together. It is performed by screws, shores, cross-setts, or cleats. SETTS, cross, are made by two short pieces of spar, about four or six feet in length; one is laid across on the upper side, and the other on the under side, of any two pieces that are to be brought together, and their ends lashed together on each side with several turns of rope, taken round each end alternately; wedges are then driven in between the upper cross-piece, and the side or part of the mast. SHEAVES, solid cylindrical wheels, fixed in mortises, cut in the masts, yards, booms, caps, or blocks, and moveable about a pin or bolt as an axis. SHEER-HULK, which is used in the royal navy for masting of vessels, is an old ship of war, cut down to the gun or lower deck, with a mast fixed in midships, about 33 inches diameter, and 108 feet high, strengthened with shores; the upper shore 87 and the lower shore 81 feet long, and each 19 inches diameter. There are shrouds and stays to secure the mast and sheers, which act as the arm of a crane, (supported by a derrick, 100 feet long and 22 inches diameter,) to hoist in or out the lower masts, when conveniently laid alongside. There are three sheers, each composed of two pieces, 22 inches diameter, scarfed together in the middle, to make 116 feet in height. The heels rest upon the sides of the hulk, and the heads incline outwards from a perpendicular, to hang over the vessel whose masts are to be fixed or displaced. This is performed by large tackles, extending from the head of the mast to the head of the sheers. The tackles by means of two capstans are fixed on the deck. SHEERS, used for masting vessels in the merchant service, are two hand-masts or large spars, erected on the vessel whose masts are to be fixed or displaced; the lower ends or heels rest, on opposite sides of the deck, upon thick planks sufficiently long to extend over two or three beams shored underneath. The two handmasts cross each other at the upper end, and are securely lashed. A tackle is lashed in the centre, and hangs perpendicularly over the station where the mast is to be fixed. The sheers are secured by guys, or stays, of proportionable rope, extending fore and aft to the opposite extremities of the vessel. SHEET, main, a tackle by which the boom of a fore and aft mainsail is shifted from each quarter. |
SHORES are made of small spars, cut to suitable lengths, that their heels may rest against a cleat, nailed on the mast or floor, or against a stump driven in the ground, or any thing of greater resistance than the force required: The sett is made by driving wedges between the head or heel of the shore. SHROUDS, large ropes that support the masts. SIDED, the dimensions of any piece contrary to which it is moulded. SIDE-TREES, the lower main pieces of a made-mast. SLIDING-RULE, a flat useful instrument, one foot long, with a slide, on which various dimensions and proportions are marked. SLINGS, the middle, or that part of a yard attached to the mast. SNAPING, reducing the ends of any piece to a less substance. SPARS, small fir-trees. SPOILING is taking the greatest distance of the inequalities between any two pieces to be fayed together. SPINDLE, the upper main piece of a made-mast. SPRIG, a small eye-bolt, ragged at the point. SQUARE, an iron or wooden instrument, with a perpendicular and base, used as a guide to set-off by. SQUARING is making one or more sides from the plumbed sides, which may be performed by a plumb or square, the tongue of which is a perpendicular to its stock or base. The mast or piece is first lined or marked to its size on one of the sides already plumbed, and so fixed that the sides, when plumbed, shall be square to the upper side. If by the latter, the stock is rested on the given side, and the line thereon transmitted by compasses to the under side from the inside of the tongue, and this repeated at the quarters, and where necessary, for lineing. Pieces that are straight need only a spot squared down at each end. Observe, the under side of the stock of the square should be kept out of winding from one particular place; supposing that place to be near the middle, a batten with a straight edge must be laid across, and there kept fixed against the side of the mast or piece, to which the under side of the square must agree, by seeing the two edges parallel with each other. The same may be performed by two battens. Let one square spot be hewed, to which one batten must be held, and the other batten looked out of winding at such distances as are necessary; and, when the edges of two battens agree, take, with compasses, what the line on the surface is within the edge of the square, or batten, and in the same direction set that gage within the edge of the batten or square on the opposite or under side, and a line is then struck to range through these spots. The more curve there is, the greater number of spots are necessary. An eight-square is formed by reducing a four-square nearer to a round, by taking off the angles, which are lined or marked within the edge, or from the middle line on each side. If the former, 7-24ths of the diameter is set within the edge at as many places as may be necessary for lineing: or 5-24ths the diameter on each side the middle line, for the latter, and a line struck to range fair through those spots; and the angles dubbed or sawed away to those lines. The rule proper for mastmakers has the divisions for the eight-square stamped on the edges, from 1 to 36 inches, or more: those on one edge are marked M. for middle line, and on the other edge E. for those set within the edge. It is necessary to have both these divisions, in case the mast or piece will not work square enough to gain the squares or angles. A sixteen-square is made by reducing a mast, or any other piece, nearer to a round, by taking the angles off the eight-square, in the following manner: viz. divide the eight-square into four equal parts, |
and strike a line to range through the divisions next the edges or angles, which are dubbed off to those lines, similar to the former. STAFFS, short pieces by which the setts are made; also long narrow pieces, with divisions of ten or twenty feet marked thereon, and again divided into halves. They are used to set-off long lengths. STANTIONS, small pillars of wood to support the top-rail. STARBOARD-SIDE, when looking forward from the stem, is the right-side. STAYS, large ropes to support the masts. STEM, the curved timber which terminates the ship forward. STEP, large solid pieces of oak timber, fixed across the keelson, into which the heels of the mast are fixed by the tenon. STERN is the after or hindmost part of a vessel, above the stern-post. STERN-POST, the large piece of timber which terminates the vessel below the stern. STIVING, a term used for elevating any thing so as to make an angle with the horizon. STOPPERS are ropes the size of the shrouds, two feet in length, with a knot and lanyard to each end. STOPS, square projections or shoulders, left on the outsides of the cheeks, at the upper part of the hounds of lower masts; also on topmasts and topgallant masts; and at the outer end of jib-booms. STRIKE, to draw a line or delineate a circle. TABLING is the uniting of pieces together in a manner similar to the chain-coak, but broader, and comes quite to or very near the edge, from the line in the middle. TAR, a liquid gum, distilled from pines or other fir-trees, and prepared for use by boiling, &c. TACKLE, a machine formed by two blocks connected by a rope. TEAK, a hard and durable Asiatic wood, used abroad for masts and hound-pieces for topmasts. TENON, the end of a mast, bowsprit, &c. cut smaller to fit into a mortise. ‘THWARTSHIPS, across the ship at angles with the keel’s length. TIMBERS, a name given to those cross-pieces to which the platforms of close tops are fastened. TOGGLE, a small wooden pin. TONGUE, the taper part at the lower end of a spindle, or of a scarf. TOP, a platform projecting round the lower-mast head: its principal use is to extend the topmast shrouds by a greater angle, and give additional support. In the sides of the top are square mortise holes for the futtock-plates to go through, with dead eyes bound in their upper parts, to unite the topmast shrouds with those of the lower mast. The top is extremely convenient for extending and managing the small sails, and fixing or repairing the rigging. Tops of ships of war are, for defence against swivels, musquetry, &c. barricadoed, with a thick fence of corded hammocks, from the foremost topmast shroud round aft along the rail, breast high. The rail is supported by stantions let into the top, with a netting from side to side; the outside is covered with baize or canvas, and furnished with stoppers, to clap on in case a topmast shroud should be carried away by accident. The frame of the top is either of deals, laid close together, and nailed to elm timbers, or open, like a grating, and made of oak battens. The former is strongest and most convenient, and is adopted by government; the latter is lighter and cheaper, holds less wind, is consequently less exposed to its effects and is used in the merchant-service. |
THE TOP-ROPE passes through a block, hooked in an eye-bolt on one side the lower cap, and afterwards through a hole, with a sheave or pully, at the lower end of the topmast; it is then brought upwards on the other side of the mast and made fast to an eye-bolt in the cap opposite the former. At the lower end of the top-rope is a top-tackle, by which the topmast is hoisted parallel to the lower-mast. TOP-ROPE, JIB, a rope by which the jib-boom is hoisted out. TREES, ROUGH, those which are cut down, and only the boughs lopped off. TRESTLE-TREES, two strong bars of oak timber resting on the cheeks of lower-masts, or hounds of topmasts. To lower-masts they are secured by being scored and bolted horizontally on the opposite sides of the mast, fore and aft, and supported by two bibs or brackets, as shoulders under them. Topmast trestle-trees are supported by the hounds. TRIMMING, working any piece into the form and shape designed by an axe or adze. TRUCK, an oblate spheroid, made of elm, and fitted on mast-heads. WEDGES are made of beech or oak to any size required, and taper on each side from the butt or head. There are fir wedges made large enough to confine the mast in the partners of the decks. WINDING. When the edge or side of a piece of timber or plank is not a direct plain, but twists, it is said to wind; if the contrary, out of winding. WOOLDING, several close turns of rope, strained right round a mast, yard, or bowsprit. YARD-ARM, the outer quarter of a yard.  |
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the PRACTICE OF MASTMAKING. the five plates of masts will, upon reference, be found most clearly to elucidate this. treatise on mastmaking.
Masts are composed of many united pieces of the soundest part of trees, and are stronger than when made of a single tree, and less liable to spring. The present practice of putting together made-masts is by a spindle, or upper tree, two side-trees, with their heel-pieces, side fishes, cheeks, front fish, cant-pieces, and fillings. The spindle, or upper tree, of large masts is made of two pieces (the substantial part of two lesser trees) coaked one into the other in the middle, and bolted together with bolts five feet asunder, and it tapers toward the upper and lower ends. The spindle of some masts is made of a single tree. The side-trees of large masts are made of two pieces, as above, coaked one into the other in the middle, and bolted together with bolts ten feet asunder. Side trees of smaller masts are made from one tree; and, after they are so made, are coaked into the lower taper or tongue of the spindle, and below that into each other, and bolted through all with bolts five feet asunder. The heel-pieces are short pieces, scarfed on the lower part of the side-trees, to make good their deficient length. They are often worked short, to gain substance in the middle. The side fishes are long planks of fir, set in and coaked into the flat surface made by the side-trees and spindle, of sufficient thickness to gain the diameter required fore and aft. The diameter athwartships is gained by the side-trees and spindle. The mast, thus far completed, is rounded, and secured by strong iron hoops driven on the outside. The cheeks are large pieces of fir (formerly oak) coaked or tabled into the upper taper or tongue of the spindle, and sufficiently thick to fashion out the head of the mast, and leave a stop for the support of the trestle-trees: they are bolted together and secured by strong iron hoops on the square part or head. The front-fish, or paunch, is a long plank of fir, hollowed to the convexity of the mast, and fastened on the foreside of the mast over the iron hoops. The cant pieces and fillings are various pieces of fir: the former make good the angles occasioned by the side-trees and side-fishes, and the latter form a fair round with the side of the mast and the upper part of the front-fish, for the conveniency of woolding. The whole is then strongly woolded together, between every hoop, with thirteen close turns of rope, each turn secured by woolding-nails, with leather under their heads to prevent their cutting. Masts of less diameter than the former are constructed of two trees, called the upper and lower tree, which are scarfed and coaked together in the middle; the upper part forming the tongue for the reception of the cheeks; the lower tree, with the addition of a heel-piece to make good the length of the upper tree, gives the diameter the fore and aft way; then, with the addition of two side-fishes, the mast is completed for hooping, and the cheeks are then set on. |
In fitting masts particular attention should be paid to place the rounding sides of curved or crooked masts forward. Bowsprits of large ships are made similar to the above; but when made of a single tree, not sufficiently large to obtain the diameter required, it is common to make good such deficiency by a fish or paunch of fir, extending the whole length, and run coaked and fayed close to a surface made on the upper side for that propose, nailed fast to the same, and secured by wooldings as the masts are. This method of strengthening masts, bowsprits, &c. is commonly used at sea, when sprung or otherwise weakened, by fishes made of fir, oak, plank, anchor-stocks, or such materials as can be had. METHOD OF CONVERTING AND LINEING OR MARKING TREES, TO BE SAWED OR HEWED, FOR PUTTING TOGETHER AND COMPLETING MADE-MASTS, MASTS OF SINGLE TREES, BOWSPRITS, YARDS, &c.
THE conversion of trees or timber to the best advantage is of great importance, otherwise much unnecessary expence and waste must occur; and the greater number of pieces any mast is composed of the more judgement is required to suit each piece with a tree the nearest to its size. The most approved method is, to delineate the various pieces the mast is to be composed of by a convenient scale of any part of an inch to a foot, upon a smooth board or paper, that the different lengths and thicknesses may be taken, so that the most suitable trees may be provided. Trees not quite straight, if sufficiently large, may be used; the workmen having always an opportunity of setting them straight, when required. Every tree appointed to make a mast, yard, bowsprit, or any part thereof, should be examined whether sound and fit; for which purpose a short piece is cut off the butt, or largest end, to see whether the heart of the tree is sound. If it has white pithy veins, is rotten, or shaky at the heart, it is bad: if so, continue taking off more pieces while there remains sufficient length. When the butt is approved of, search along the sides, by dubbing or hewing spots a little distance asunder, and carefully examine every knot, rindgall, &c. If sound and clear of sap, line and measure it to the thickness and length intended. Trees for spindles of made-masts line in length five-sevenths the length of the whole mast: side them fore and aft two-thirds the whole diameter of the mast, if the trees will admit; if not, three fifths the diameter of the mast, and so continued to the haunch of the side-fishes; and above the butt of the side-fishes to the size of the mast-head. The thickness of the coaks to be allowed, when spindles are composed of two trees. The size of the spindle athwartships is set off tapering from a middle line to half the given diameter at the stop of the hounds, and is to haunch in, three inches on each side, four feet below the butt of the side-trees; and from thence lines straight to half the given diameter at the second quarter, and then tapers to half the size of the stop at the butt. Above the butt of the side-trees the upper part tapers to five-thirtieths of the given diameter at the head. The thickness of the coaks for faying is to be added. SIDE-TREES are sided to the size of the spindle, the fore and aft way, and the thickness of the coaks added when a side-tree is composed of two pieces. The breadth athwartships, from the heel of the mast to the butt of the spindle, is one-half the diameter, adding the thickness of the coaks. It is the same from thence to the second quarter, deducting the substance of the spindle. At the third quarter (spindle included) the breadth is eighteen twenty-fifths of the given diameter, and at the haunch one-fourth of the breadth of the spindle at the stop of the hounds. |
Trees not of substance to admit the side-trees working their whole length are made good with heel-pieces, scarfed underneath at their lower ends. The scarf lines in length one-third, or one-half the length of the heel-piece, with a butt at the upper end one-sixth the depth, and at the lower end three-sevenths the substance of the side-tree, and a hook-butt in the middle of one inch or more. SIDE-FISHES are commonly sawed out of one tree, down the middle, and one-fourth the diameter of the mast set off on each side for the thickness: the breadth two-thirds the given diameter, and forty forty-one parts of that breadth at the first quarter; eleven-twelfths at the second, five-sixths at the third, and two-thirds at the upper end, and a parallel breadth from the gun deck to the butt. FRONT-FISH, the same as the side-fishes. CHEEKS line in length, for the main-mast, nine-twentieths; for the fore-mast three-sevenths; and for the mizen-mast two-fifths, the length of their masts: they line straight on the inside from the upper part, and are set back five inches for every yard in the length of the mast, except the mizen-mast; in that only four inches for the length of the head and stop of the hounds, and seven-fifteenths that length for the length of the hounds. Breadth of the cheeks at the head, two-thirds the given diameter of the mast, and three-fourths at the stop and lower part of the hounds. In the middle, between the hounds and the lower end, eleven-twelfths of the breadth at the stop, and at the lower end half the given diameter. Allow the thickness of the coaks, when made of two pieces. The thickness of the cheeks is set off from the inside. The upper part above the stop to be one one-fourth the given diameter, and a stop left to project full half that thickness; the lower part of the hounds one inch more than the thickness of the upper part, or head. From thence line straight to five-ninths of the head at the lower end. HEEL-PIECES are sided to the same size as the side-trees, and are sawed with a scarf, to fit that left in the side-tree. MASTS MADE OF TWO TREES.
Both trees line the whole length of the mast, when sufficient; if not, the deficiency is made good by a piece at the head and heel. Both trees are sided athwartships to two-thirds the diameter of the mast, from the heel to the haunch of the side-fishes, and taper above the butt of the side-fishes to one-half the given diameter at the stop of the hounds, and five-thirtieths at the upper part of the head, adding to the latter the thickness of the coaks on each side for laying the cheeks. Each tree lines straight on the inside, and the diameter of the mast fore and aft is made by the lower tree, holding the greater substance at the heel, and the upper tree on the head, and both one substance at the second quarter: the thickness of the coaks to be added. Fishes and cheeks the same as for masts made with spindle and side-trees. MASTS MADE OF A SINGLE TREE.
LOWER MAST. The tree intended for this purpose has a straight line struck along the middle, and the heighths of the decks set up thereon from the butt. The middle deck, in three deck ships, and the upper deck, in two deck ships, are the partners; then from the heel set up the whole length of the mast, and from that length set back five inches in every yard for the head and stop for the hounds, and four inches only in the mizen-mast, and seven-fifteenths that length for the length of the hounds. Then divide the space from the lower part of the head to the partners into four equal parts, and term them quarters; that nearest the partners the first, the next the second, the other the third. Large masts have two quarters between the lower deck and heel. The different diameters of the lower masts are set off at those places by plumbing down one-half on each side from the line in the middle, beginning at the partners with the given diameter in the Table of Dimen- |
sions, (and many add one inch more, to give the hoops a quicker drift.) At the other decks, the same as the given diameter; at the first quarter sixty sixty-one parts of the given diameter; at the second fourteen-fifteenth parts; at the third six-sevenths; at the lower part of the head three-fourths; and at the upper part five-eighths. Leave a stop of four inches and a half, or three inches and a half, according to the size of the mast, at the lower part of the head on each side athwartships. The diameter of the first quarter, below the lower deck, to be the same as the first quarter above the partners; the next the same as the second, and at the heel to be six-sevenths of the given diameter. Masts that have cheeks differ in this; they line tapering athwartships, from the lower end of the cheeks to five-thirtieths the given diameter at the head, adding the thickness of the coaks for faying the cheeks. Cheeks and front-fish the same as for masts made with spindle and side trees. Cutters and other small vessels have their lower-masts and top-masts all in one; and the topmast above the stops of the lower-mast one-third or one-fourth the whole length; with hounds, stops, and a square head above, similar to ships’ top-masts: sometimes they have a common head, like other lower-masts. with cross-trees, cap, and top-mast, as fancy dictates. The diameters are set off as for other masts. TOP-MASTS. The tree has a line struck straight along the middle; and from the butt once and a half the given diameter is set up for a block below the heeling, which is twice and a half the diameter from the block; then from the lower part of the heeling set up the place of the lower cap, which is the length of the lower-mast head, also the whole length of the top-mast; and from that length set back, for the length of the head and stop of the hounds, four inches to every yard for the main and fore top-masts, and three inches and a half for mizen top-masts, and three-fifths that length below for the length of the hounds; and divide from the lower part of the head to the cap into four equal parts or quarters; that next the cap is the first quarter. At these places the different diameters are set off as before. At the cap the diameter as in Table of Dimensions; at the first quarter sixty sixty-one parts the diameter of the cap; at the second quarter fourteen-fifteenths; at the third quarter six-sevenths; at the lower part of the hounds thirteen-sixteenths; at the stop nine-tenths; at the lower part of the head nine-thirteenths; and at the upper part six-elevenths. The stops on the fore and aft sides are to come up to the underside of the cross-trees. The heeling to be square, and large enough (if the tree will admit) to fill up the trestle-trees at the lower-mast head, and to haunch at the upper part to the diameter of the cap. The block below the heeling the same diameter as at the cap. The aftsides of top-masts line straight. MIZZEN TOP-MAST. The square heeling is set up from the butt, having no block, and sometimes a long pole head, instead of a square head for a topgallant-mast. After the length is set off, set back three inches and a half in every yard in the length for the stop, and three-fifths that below for the hounds. Then from the stop set up three times that length, and two-thirds more for a long pole-head. The diameter of the upper part of the long pole-head to be two-thirds of the lower part, and line straight the whole length of the pole-head, and all below as the top-mast. TOPGALLANT-MASTS line similar to the mizen top-mast, and have commonly pole heads, either stump, common, or long. A stump pole-head is the length of a square head; a common pole-head is seven-eighteenths of the length, set up from the stop; and a long pole-head is two-thirds the length to the stop, and is set up as above. ROYAL MASTS line similar to the stump-head of topgallant-masts, and have a square head. They are seldom used. |
BOWSPRITS. Bowsprits made of two trees are lined two-thirds the diameter athwartships, and each tree to one-half the diameters fore and aft, adding the thickness of the coaks. Side-fishes are commonly sawed out of one tree straight down the middle, and one-fourth the diameter set off on each side for the thickness. The length is the whole length of the bowsprit. Bowsprits made of one tree have a straight line struck along the middle, and the bed set up from the butt three-tenths the length of the bowsprit, and six inches added. Then set up the whole length from the butt, and within that length four inches for every yard, for the long square on the upperside, and one-third that for the short square on the underside. Then divide between the bed and outer end into four equal quarters; that next the bed is the first quarter, and set off the diameters as before; at the bed as in the Table of Dimensions; at the first quarter sixty sixty-one parts of the diameter at the bed; at the second quarter eleven-twelfths; at the third quarter four-fifths; at the outer end five-ninths; and at the heel six-sevenths: they are then to be lined to that size with a fair curve. YARDS, made of two trees, have each tree lined long enough to scarf four feet beyond the first quarter next the middle or slings, which is in all five-eighths the length of the yard, adding four feet; then strike a straight middle line, and set up from the butt four feet for the haunch; from thence one-eighth the length of the yard for the middle, and the same on the other side for the length of the scarf; from the middle to the end it is divided into four quarters; that next the middle is the first. The diameters are set off at the slings, as in the Table of Dimensions. At the first quarter on each side thirty thirty-one parts of the diameter in the middle; at the second quarter seven-eighths; at the third quarter seven-tenths; and at the outer ends or arms three-sevenths. They are then lined and sided to that size; then canted, and a middle line struck on one of those sides, and the middle and the quarters squared up thereon from the middle line on the first side, and the same diameters set off as before; then lined and made square to the upperside. The scarfs line straight, from each quarter next the middle, to one-fourth the substance at the quarter next the butt, and three-fourths at the quarter next the middle; and haunches to about three inches at the butt. These are the main and fore-yards of large ships only. All yards made of one tree line as the former, the scarfs excepted. NEW METHOD OF MAKING THE ABOVE-MENTIONED YARDS OF TWO TREES.
YARDS made of two trees, by scarfing them together, are the strongest. They are made thus. Two trees of the size wanted are scarfed together, holding their diameters beyond the fishes. The deficiency of the diameter is made good by long fishes of fir, from four to six inches thick, as the size of the yard may require, extending two feet in length, at each end, beyond the long square on the aftside, and each of sufficient breadth to form the eight-square on the outside. The inner surfaces of the fishes are coaked and fayed close upon the yards, the coaks extending near the whole length. They are trimmed eight-square, one quarter each way beyond the middle; the remainder is rounded, except the aftside, which is left square two quarters each way, and then rounded, and the ends snaped. Bolts are driven from the fore and after sides alternately, between the hoops, which are stationed as usual. N.B. The yard would be stronger were the fishes not coaked for some distance from the middle, it having a tendency to weaken the scarfs of the main pieces. |
MIZEN-YARDS. Their diameters are set off from a line in the middle, as the former, but differ as follow. They are to be of the given diameter in the Table of Dimensions, at the slings, which is one and one-half the diameter below the middle. At the first quarter, next the slings of the upper arm, thirty thirty-one parts of the diameter at the slings; at the second quarter, seven-eighths; at the third quarter, three-sevenths; and, at the arm, two-fifths. At the first quarter of the lower arm, sixty sixty-one parts; at the second quarter, eleven-fifteenths; at the third quarter, three-fifths; and, at the arm, two-thirds. When timber is scarce, yards are sometimes lengthened at the arm, where the wood is not sufficient to gain the whole length. They only differ from the former by having a tongue at the end, lengthened and tapered to one-eighth the substance from one-third the length of the arm-piece, and a butt on each side, one-sixteenth the diameter. The arm-piece is cut to make good the length of the yard-arm, with jaws in the largest end, to receive the tongue. This method is much used at sea, when the yards are damaged at the arms. Lower-yards of merchant ships commonly have a square place raised at each yard-arm for a sheave hole for the topsail sheets, and sometimes the cleats, or stops, are raised from the solid of the topsail and other yards. Masts bowsprits, and yards, after they are lined, have their sides hewed or sawed perpendicular to the lines on the upper surface. Sawing is best and cheapest, especially for large masts, as the pieces sawed off serve for fillings, cant pieces, &c. Workmen, hewing where much wood is to come off, are apt to wound and weaken the mast, which should be carefully avoided. After a mast or any part thereof is sided, it is canted, and a straight middle-line struck along one of the sides, and the quarters and other divisions squared up from the first middle-line, and the sizes and diameters set off as before from this new middle-line. The sides are then hewed or sawed square to the surface from those lines, and, after that, eight-squared thus, viz. Five twenty-fourths of the diameters are set off on each side the middle-line, on every side, or seven twenty-fourths set in within the edges, and lines struck with fair curves; then the angles or edges are taken off straight to the lines on each side. Here the mastmaker may be readily assisted by his rule, it having the proper divisions. Lower-masts are lined eight-square from the heel to the lower part of the hounds, except they have cheeks, then to the lower part of the cheeks; and from thence break off, on the fore and after sides, to the breadth of the cheeks at the lower part of the head. Top-masts, from the upper part of the heeling to the under part of the hounds, are eight-square; as also the block below the heel of main and fore top-masts. Topgallant-masts and mizen top-masts, with long pole heads, are eight-square from the upper part of the heeling to the under part of the hounds, and above the stop to the upper part of the pole head. Bowsprits are eight-square from the heel to the square part at the outer end, except those of cutters or vessels that have their bowsprits upon deck: they are left square within the bow one-fourth the length. Yards in general are eight-square, except those lower ones in the merchant-Service that have square parts left for the sheave-holes and boom irons at their arms or outer ends. PUTTING TOGETHER AND COMPLETING MASTS, BOWSPRITS, YARDS, &c.
SPINDLES OF MASTS, composed of two pieces, are coaked together in the middle, with a coak and plain four feet long. Half the spindle is raised upon blocks, with the middle surface up- |
wards, and planed smooth. The blocks are long enough to reach through a little distance on each side, or setting the spindle straight, if required. A ram-line is made fast in the middle of one end, and hauled tight; it is then fastened in the middle of the other end, and, where a spindle deviates from a straight line, a block should be fixed underneath, and a cleat nailed thereon, and the place set straight, by wedges driven between the cleat and the spindle. A middle-line is then struck on the spindle, straight with the ram-line, and squared down at each end. The length of the coaks is then set up from the butt; first, three feet six inches from the butt, and four feet from that for the first coak; and so on by four feet to the upper end, squaring them across from the middle-line, and down on each side. The breadth of the coaks is lined, to have two inches good wood when the side-trees are coaked on and placed in the middle. The coaks are sunk one inch and a quarter to one inch and a half, and are cleared out by a mallet and chisel. Be careful to sink the coaks no deeper than the gage, as the mast is weakened thereby. After the coaks are sunk, and cleared out, the other half of the spindle is canted on, with its middle surface to the other, and set straight and close, with cross-setts where necessary. The butts of the coaks are then squared up, upon each side the upper half, from the sides of the lower one, and the middle-line at each end. The distance between is then taken with compasses, and to that is added the thickness of the coaks, and that gage pricked off from the surface of the lower half to the sides of the upper one, and a line struck on each side to range through the same. The upper half is then canted off upon blocks, and a straight line struck along the middle to that squared up at each end from the lower one. The butts of the coaks are then marked across and lined to their breadths, and sawed across to the line on each side, and the intermediate wood, and that on each side the coaks, dubbed away straight, the coaks only remaining. A score is taken out of the middle of a batten to go over the coaks, and so used to prove it straight. Observe, the coaks are to remain no higher above the surface than the depth of those sunk in the other half. Before the pieces are canted together, set a small chamfer be taken off the edges of the coaks, and both surfaces tarred with soft tar; then cant one on the other into its place, and both must be set close together with cross-setts, and bolted with bolts, from one inch to three quarters diameter, five feet asunder, through holes bored in the middle with an auger one-quarter of an inch less than the size of the bolts. The bolts must not be driven quite through, that the spindle may be reduced where necessary. SIDE-TREES, each composed of two pieces, are coaked together in the middle, similar to the spindle. Each piece of the side-tree is often worked short of the whole length, the deficiency being made good by pieces scarfed to them at the heel, in the following manner, viz. Half the length of the scarf is the length of the coaks, which are three inches broad, and are placed at the end of each other on each side the middle-line; that next the butt is sunk to one inch and three-eighths, and the next raised one inch and three-eighths. The coaks that unite the pieces of a side-tree together in the middle contain an equal part of the side-tree and heel-piece in their breadth along the scarfs, and all above is divided into a coak and plain four feet long, and one-third the thickness of the side-tree broad, and lined nearest the inside edge, to have two inches good wood. When the side-trees are coaked to the spindle, they are fayed and bolted together, through the middle, with bolts one inch to three quarters diameter, ten feet asunder, except in the scarf. There should be two bolts in each scarf, and the first bolt two feet above the heel or butt of the side-trees. After the side-trees are bolted together, their inner surfaces are planed straight and fair, and the haunch, at the butt, at the upper ends, diminished from four feet to two or three inches; a straight line |
is then struck along the middle of the surface, squared down at each end, and the coaks set off. From the lower end set up two feet for the butt of the first coak, and set its breadth be one-third the breadth of the side-tree, and placed in the middle, within the haunch at the upper end. The intermediate space is divided into a four-feet coak and plain; the butts of the coaks on one side to come to the ends of those opposite, and all the butts to be squared across from the middle-line and down the sides. The breadth of the coaks to be one-fourth the breadth of the side-tree, and half their breadth from the middle-line on each side, and sunk to one inch and a half, or less, as before. The side-tree thus compleated is canted upon the tongue, or lower part, of the spindle, and set straight and close with cross-setts. Then square down the butts of the coaks, the haunch, and the middle-line at the ends, from the sides of the side-tree to the sides of the spindle; then, with compasses, take the distance they are asunder, and the thickness of the coaks, and set off that gage from the underside of the side-trees to the sides of the spindle, and strike the line. The side-tree is canted off, and a line struck on the middle of the spindle to the spots squared down, the butts of the coaks squared across, and their breadths taken from the middle-line of the side-tree, and set off from that on the spindle; the coaks are then raised as before, chamfered, tarred, and canted again on the spindle into its place, and set close. Thus the spindle and side-tree are canted that the other surface of the spindle may lie upwards, for coaking on the other side-tree. The whole is then bolted together, with bolts from one inch to three-quarters diameter, five feet asunder, and the holes bored through the middle of the coaks. The haunch, being less in substance, is fastened to the spindle with dump nails. The mast is then canted, and hewed to its size athwartships, from a straight line struck along the middle of the fore or aft side. The height of the partners, quarters, &c. are then set up, and the different diameters set off and lined as before directed. The mast is again canted, and a middle-line struck on the athwartship side, it lying upwards, from the heel to the head, and the partners, quarters, &c. squared up from the first middle-line; then line the mast for the eight-square by setting off five twenty-fourths the diameter of each place from both sides the middle-line, from the heel to the lower end of the cheeks, and from thence to line off to nothing at the lower part of the head. Set down the sides below the edge, as much as the line for the eight-square is within the edge, allowing three-eighths of an inch for reconciling. When the fish is on, lines are then struck to those spots, and the wood between them dubbed away straight from line to line. The other ‘thwartship side is then canted up and eight-squared. The mast is again canted, and one of the fore and aft surfaces laid upwards, for coaking on the side-fish. The butts of the coaks are set up from the heel on the middle-line, and squared across thus; the butt of the lowest coak to be three feet above the heel, and three feet nine inches in length; the next coaks come among the scarfs of the heel-pieces, and are so disposed as to have two coaks in length, in a short scarf, and three in a long one; and the breadth of the coaks to come equally on each piece. Above the scarf to the second quarter to have a coak and plain four feet long, one on each side the middle-line, and the butts on one side to come in the middle of the coaks on the other, and squared across from the middle-line. The coaks to be in breadth one-third the breadth of the fish, and equally placed between the middle-line and edges of the fish. All above the second quarter are single coaks, placed in the middle, of the same length as the lower ones, and to be eight inches broad, the upper one five inches; a line struck from one to the other gives the breadths of the intermediate coaks. Every butt must be squared from the middle-line, and raced across from side to side. |
SIDE-FISHES are planed straight and fair on the inside surface and edges, then canted on the masts, and set straight and close to the middle-line; the breadth of the fish is then marked on the mast, and the butts of the coaks squared up from the mast on to the sides of the fish, and the middle-line at the ends. The fish should be sunk in the mast and raced along its sides with compasses, from the surface of the side-trees and the haunch at the upper end. The fish is then canted off, and a middle-line truck on the inside, and the butts of the coaks raced across, that their breadths, taken from the mast, may correspond. The coaks are raised on the mast by taking away the intermediate wood, to the breadth and depth the fish is to be set into the mast, which is one inch and a half to two inches in large masts, and the coaks left above that surface are from one inch and one-eighth to one inch and three-eighths, and are sunk to the same depth in the fish. The whole to be cleared out, and the edges taken off with a chamfer, the surfaces tarred, and the fish again canted on the mast into its place, set close down with cross-setts, and fastened to the mast with dump nails, twice the thickness of the fish in length. The side-fish on the opposite side of the mast is coaked on in the same manner. The mast is now squared to its size, the fore and aft way, by a square or batten; the latter is laid across the fish parallel to the middle-line on each side, and what it exceeds the half diameter of the mast is set below the edge of the batten on each side the fish, and this is repeated at the partners, quarters, &c. then lined with a fair curve to the same, and the wood dubbed off straight to the line on each side. A straight line is then struck along the middle, and the eight-square lined from it as before, and dubbed straight through to the ‘thwartship sides. In the remaining angles, between the surface of the mast and the sides of the fish, are fayed and nailed cant pieces, which are dubbed straight with the eight-square. The mast is then canted twice, for the other side to be squared and finished in the same manner. The mast is then sixteen-squared, rounded, and planed smooth from the heel to the hounds, except the surfaces left for coaking on the cheeks, which are rounded a little at the lower part, one-third their length. The mast, thus far compleated, is hooped, the upper mould hoop is placed in the middle of the hounds, and the others equally spaced between that and the lowest mould hoop, which should be eight inches above the lower end of the cheeks. The other hoops are circular, and divided into two drifts. The upper drives on from the head of the mast, and the lowest hoop comes within two feet of the partners; the rest are equally spaced about four feet asunder. The lower drift drives on from the heel of the mast, and the upper hoop placed within two feet of the partners, and the others about two feet each way clear of the decks. Below the decks the hoops are equally divided, to the heel hoop, which is one foot seven inches above the heel of the mast. Moulds are made to the upper hoops, that are not circular, as a guide for the smith; they are fayed to the shape of the mast, and nailed together at the corners, one foot below the station of each hoop, and the number of the station marked on the upper side. Circular hoops are made to girths taken round the mast at the stations of the hoops. That they may be tight, one inch is cut off the girth of the first hoop of each drift, after it is fitted to the mast, and gradually increases, cutting off from the other girths to one inch and three-eighths at the girth of the last hoop; the other drift the same. Observe, the first hoop of each drift is the largest. The hoops are made of iron, four to four inches and a half broad, half an inch or five-eighths thick, and the edge that first goes on the mast is chamfered on the inside. |
The hoops are heated nearly red, then driven on the mast to their stations by long round bars of iron, called pokers, flatted on the feet. They are swung backwards and forwards, by the working, striking the edge of the hoop on each side the mast, which is well greased with tallow to facilitate the driving the hoop, and prevent the mast from burning. The hoop, when driven to its station, is cooled with water, which shrinks it and increases the tension. The upper drift and mould hoops are driven on from the head, and the lower drift from the heel, of the mast. CHEEKS made of two pieces are coaked together in the middle, and the edges planed straight and square. Then set off the coaks; the butt of the first is to be one foot above the lower end of the cheek, and from thence to the head divided into coaks and plains three feet in length each. The butt of the coak to be nine inches short of the stop, and the breadth of the coak at the upper end one third the thickness, and placed in the middle, and the remainder lined from the inside edge, so as to leave a two or three inch margin on the outer edge, and sunk one inch and an eighth deep. The other half is then canted on and spoiled for faying as before; and when fayed close the pieces are bolted together through the middle with bolts seven-eighths of an inch diameter, the first bolt five feet from the lower end, and the others four feet asunder, and not driven quite through. The breadth of the cheeks is next set off from a straight line struck along the middle, and the edges trimmed square and planed smooth with the inner surface, and then the exact thickness set off from the inside. The outside of the cheek, at the lower part, is rounded from the lower end to the hounds, and two-thirds the thickness of the cheeks is set up from the inside on the foremost edge, and one-third on the after edge, and a line struck. Below the line remains square, and above is divided into two equal parts on each side, and a straight line struck along the back of the cheek, from the lower end to the under part of the hounds, one inch and a half from the middle-line towards the foremost edge, and from thence dubbed or bearded straight to the first line, down on each edge. Then another line is struck in the middle of that bearding on each side, and again bearded from thence to the next line upon the edge. Then divide each of those squares into four equal parts, and strike lines to the divisions next the edges, and dubb the edges off to the line on each side, then round it smooth with planes, and bring the rounded part of the cheek in with a sweep at the lower part of the hounds. Above the hounds to the stop, a large chamfer is taken off the after edge of each cheek. The head of the cheeks above the trestle-trees is bearded on the outsides, from one-third the breadth to three-eighths of an inch down on each edge. The cheeks are then canted, the inner surface to lie upwards, on which a straight line is struck along the middle, and squared down at each end; then, with a staff laid along the mast, set off the stations of the hoops from the lower end of the cheeks; do the same on the middle-line of the cheek; then dispose the coaks thus; set down eighteen inches from the upper end of the cheek for the butt of the first coak, and three feet six inches for its length, which, squared across, makes the first butt of the coak: and from thence to the hoop below the hounds on the opposite side all the coaks are to be the same length, if the upper part of the cheek admits. The other coaks are equally divided in length between the hoops; the whole to be six inches broad, and placed half their breadth on each side the middle-line; the last coak is to be one-third the breadth of the cheek, and placed in the middle at three-fourths the length of the cheek from the head. The cheeks are then canted on the upper part of the mast, and laid straight with the middle-line on the mast, and set close. Then square down all the butts of the coaks upon the mast, and the butt of the hollow, and each side of the hoops to the sides of the cheeks. Then, from the underside of the cheeks, set down upon the mast on each side (with compasses) one inch and a quarter, the depth of the coaks, and strike a line to the same |
parallel with the edge of the cheek. The check is then canted off, and the butts of the coaks raced across on the mast, and the edges of the hoops upon the inside of the cheeks, and the breadth of the coaks correspondently taken from the middle-line on the cheek, and set off from the middle-line on the mast; the coaks on the cheeks to be sunk one inch and a quarter deep, and raised the same on the mast, One-fourth the length of the cheek from the lower end is hollowed to the convexity of the mast. The workman, to perform this with exactness, bends a piece of iron hoop round the mast, and hollows the cheek to the same, leaving a margin at each side twice the thickness of the hoops, which are set in the cheek their thickness in the hollow, and the depths of the coaks beside. Cheeks made of one piece sometimes table on to the mast-head thus; eighteen inches is set down from the upper end of the cheek for the first butt, and twenty-two inches from thence for the length of the tables, and that continued as low as the first half of the cheek, and from thence to three-fourths the length of the same, dividing into running coaks three feet in length. The butts of the coaks and tables are all squared across from the middle-line and down the sides, and the breadth of the tables within three inches of each edge from the middle-line, and one table sunk one inch and a quarter deep, the other left alternately on each side the middle. The coaks to be six inches broad, the first next the tabling placed in the middle. The others placed four inches on each side the middle-line alternately, and the remainder of the cheek hollowed as before. The edges of the coaks and tables, after they are sunk and cleared, are chamfered, and the surface of the cheek, and the mast where it fays is paid over with soft tar; the cheek is then canted on the mast into its place, and set close as before. The mast is then canted twice, and the opposite cheek compleated in the same manner. The edges of the cheeks are rounded above the upperside of the trestle-trees to the underside of the cap, nearly. The cheeks are farther secured to the upper part of the spindle by hoops, bolts, and nails, as follow. Six hoops on the head of large made-masts, and four or five on smaller. The upper hoop to be its breadth below the underside of the cap, the others equally spaced on the head of the mast, and to have one hoop its breadth below the stops; moulds are made to the hoops as before. There are to be two bolts between every hoop on the mast-head, driven through the cheeks athwartships, one at one edge, the other at opposite angles, except at the upper and lower hoop, which are to have one bolt at each edge clear of the trestle-trees, and six bolts in the hounds, two next the hoop at the upper part, two in the middle, and two through the lower end above the sweep, and three or four bolts below the hounds, all to be driven through alternately, one from the starboard, and the next from the larboard side, and clenched on a ring; and, in size, from seven-eighths to one inch: the auger to be one quarter less. The lower part of the cheeks is fastened with dump nails, twice as long as the cheeks are thick, and three between each hoop. The cheeks are then planed fair and smooth, and the lower ends haunched away with a snape, resembling the bill of a duck. Lastly, the mast is canted, the foreside to lie upwards, and the oak chock between the trestle-trees is to be fayed, and bolted through the mast. The chock to be in length the width of the lower part of the mast-head; in breadth, the depth of the trestle-trees; in thickness, the same as the wood between the two holes in the lower cap, with three-eighths of an inch added for the leather, and to be bolted with two small bolts, one in each opposite corner. Next the chock is a front-fish, hollowed and fayed to the foreside of the mast thus. The inner surface is first planed straight, and the edges squared and hollowed to the convexity of the mast, the same as the lower part of the cheeks, leaving a margin on the inner surface at each edge twice the thickness of the hoops, and rounded on the back |
to half the thickness on the sides; then cant it on the mast, the middle of the fish to lie straight with the middle-line on the mast, and the upper end close against the chock. Then square the hoops up to the sides of the fish, and with compasses race their thickness. Then cant off the fish, and race the hoops across, and take out the scores to their thickness; tar over the inside of the fish, and cant it again into its place on the mast, and nail it with nails twice its thickness in length. FILLINGS are pieces fayed to the side of the mast, edges of the front-fish, and cheeks, and make a fair surface for the wooldings. They are sometimes made the whole length of the front-fish, but often no longer than sufficient for the breadth of the woolding, and their ends snaped and nailed close to the mast. They are fayed by moulds to the shape of the mast and fish, and marked on the ends of the fillings at each place, and the filling trimmed thereto; the long fillings add security to the mast, and prevent the lodgment of water. Short fillings are remedied by snaping their ends, and the long fillings are fayed by moulds at the ends and middle; the middle moulds undergo a second operation, being first fayed to the mast, the edge of the fish, and the cheek, with a straight back, to keep them out of winding, and then reversed by another mould, to be applied in the same manner on the filling. The fillings when fayed are paid over with tar on the inside, and nailed to the mast, then rounded on the back, to form a fair curve with the upperside of the fish, cheeks, and sides, of the mast. The lower end of the long filling snapes as the lower end of the cheeks. At the lower end of the fish is driven on a hoop, called a fish-hoop, which is beat close to the sides of the mast. In seventy-four gun ships and upwards is another hoop put on over the fish and fillings, called a clasp-hoop. It has a hinge in the middle, and keys together at the ends through mortises made long enough to admit two forelocks, that drive through contrarywise, which encrease the tension of the hoop, and are nailed to the mast. A square tenon is made at the head of the mast for fixing on the cap; it is made tapering from the lower part or depth of the cap, thus; the tenon is two inches less than the mast-head in large ships, and one inch and a half in small ones, and half that is set on each side the middle-line athwartships, at the upper part, and one quarter of an inch more at the lower part, and taken square through and parallel to each other fore and aft. The tenon is to strengthen from the aftside, to prevent the cap drooping below a level, by tapering the foreside of the mast-head from the lowerside of the cap to as much as the sides are less than the mast-head at the upper part, and the aftside of the mast-head half as much. A square tenon is likewise made for fixing the heel of the mast in the step, and is two-thirds the given diameter athwartships, and one-half fore and aft at the upper part, and tapers one inch and a half in the depth, (which is one-third the given diameter,) in large, and three-sevenths in small, ships. TRESTLE-TREES are sawed or hewed to their sizes thus. In length, they are one-fourth the length of the top-mast; in depth, half the given diameter of the mast; and in thickness, two-thirds of the depth. The insides are trimmed straight, and out of winding, and the thickness set off parallel thereto. The uppersides line straight and square, and the depth parallel. The undersides are snaped at each end, and the edges chamfered the length of the snape. One end to be once and a half the depth, the other end once the depth only, within the ends, and the snapes are lined to half the depth of the trestle-tree, and rounded to a sweep at the ends; the lower outer edge is chamfered along the whole length, and the inside only to the cross-trees. The longest snapes to be at the foremost ends of the main trestle-trees, and the after ends of the foremast trestle-trees. |
Cross-trees are hewed or sawed to their sizes thus. In length, they are one-third the length of the topmast, deducting six inches; the breadth as much as the trestle-trees are thick, and the depth two-thirds the breadth. The undersides are trimmed straight and out of winding, and the depth parallel thereto. Their insides are lined straight and square from the underside, and the breadth parallel to it, and are tapered at each end on the undersides one-fourth the length of the cross-trees, from the end to half the depth, and the ends rounded off with a sweep, and the edges chamfered on the undersides and round the ends the length of the snapes. FRAMING OF THE TRESTLE AND CROSS-TREES. The trestle-trees are kept asunder parallel to each other the breadth of the mast-head athwartships at the stops, except what the trestle-trees face on the sides of the mast, and square with each other at the ends, and are confined in a temporary manner by pieces of spar, one towards each end, scored in between, and lapped on each trestle-tree, and the lap nailed thereto, to prevent its flipping. The cross-trees are next laid across the undersides of the trestle-trees at right angles, or square with their lengths, and the middle of the cross-trees kept in the center between the trestle-trees; and the aftside of the foremost cross-tree the depth of the mast-head fore and aft, from the middle of the trees-trees; and the middle of the trees-trees kept well with the foreside of the mast-head; and the foreside of the after cross-tree twice the depth of the mast-head, abaft the middle of the trestle-trees. The breadth of the cross-trees is then raced upon the undersides of the trees-trees by compasses, and squared down the sides. The thickness of the trees-trees is likewise raced on the under-sides of the cross-trees, and squared up their sides; the cross-trees are then removed, and scores cut in the trestle-trees to set them down within one inch (or three-quarters, in smaller ships) of their depth, except the facing on the outsides, which is taken in square to the whole of their depth; a score is likewise taken out of the undersides of the cross-trees to the breadth and depth of the facing on the trestle-trees; but the latter is performed with more exactness when the trees-trees are got in their places on the mast. On each side the scores in the trees-trees is driven a small bolt, through from the underside, to secure the short wood, and clenched on a ring. An iron plate, three-quarters of an inch thick, three-fourths the square hole long, and two-fifths the thickness of the trestle-tree broad, is set in on each side, to keep the fid from rubbing the trestle-tree. The trees-trees are next got into their places, and face on the ‘thwartship sides of the mast as follow. First, the head of the mast must be elevated, by barrel or other screws, more than half the length of the trestle-trees, or else got over a hole or cellar, as are in some mast-houses, conveniently fitted with scuttles, or launched an end over a wharf, and a stage made under the head. The mast should be fixed perpendicular to its diameter. The trestle-trees are next got up into their places with a tackle, and fixed by shores on the ‘thwartship sides of the mast. Their lower sides rest upon the stops, their middle is kept well with the foreside of the mast, and their insides perpendicular and parallel. The foremast ends are to drop as much below a square with the middle-line on the mast as the mast is designed to rake aft in the length, that they may be level when the mast is in its place. In this position they are made to bed firm on the stops, being square athwart from the middle-line. One inch and an eighth of the trees-trees to be set into the mast, and marked with compasses on the underside of the chock, and lowerside of the mast from their insides; and from the sides of the mast on the undersides of the trestle-trees. Then race by the upperside of the chock and underside of the mast upon the insides of the trees-trees, and the uppersides of the trees-trees down the sides of the mast. The trees-trees are then lowered |
down, and one inch set down from the upperside of the mast at the middle of the chock on each side, and one inch and a half at the upperside of the trestle-trees, and that wood taken away to the race upon the upper and fore side of the chock, then set up one inch and a half from the underside of the mast at the stop, and one inch at the upperside of the trestle-tree; strike a line, and cut away the wood square to the race underneath. The same is set off on the insides of the trestle-trees, and the intermediate wood cut away to the depth of the race on the upperside, so that what it is faced in on the mast remains on the trestle-trees. The trestle-trees are then got into their places, set close, and bolted to the mast-head, with three bolts, one inch to one inch and a quarter diameter, one through the underside next the stop, one through the upperside next the upperside of the trestle-tree, and one through the middle of the chock; the holes to be bored through three times their diameter from the edge. The bolts in the trestle-trees are driven from contrary sides, and are clenched on a ring. It is best not to bolt trestle-trees but when the mast is for present use. The cross-trees are now faced on to the trestle-trees, as before described. BIBS are brackets, made of elm plank, from three to five inches thick, and nine-elevenths the length of the hounds in length, and in breadth six-fifteenths their length. The after edge is first lined straight, and the upper part square from that, and the fore part tapered by a moulding to four or six inches broad at the lower ends. The after edge is fayed on the cheeks, and the upper part against the underside of the trestle-tees on the foreside of the mast viz. In the middle of the after edge, set up one inch and a half, and line straight from that to nothing at the lower end, which makes a butt in the middle; then place the bibs on the mast, their thickness within the sides of the cheeks, and their upper parts to the outside of the trestle-trees; then set one inch and a half be raced by the lower edge of the bibs upon the cheeks, and the wood taken out to that depth, and the thickness of the bibs, that they may bed firm therein; they are then bolted edgeways through the cheeks with four bolts driven from the foreside and clenched on a ring on the aftside. The bolts to be in diameter from one inch to seven-eighths or three quarters in small ships masts, and only three in number. The lower end of the bib is rounded off to the surface of the cheek, and the edges chamfered. BOLSTERS are pieces of fir fayed upon the upperside of the trestle-trees, and against the ‘thwartship sides of the mast-head. They must be sufficiently long to clear the fid-hole and after cross-tree, and broad enough to project one inch and a half, or more, without the trestle-trees, and the same in depth, and rounded from the upper to the lower edge on the outside, and nailed to the trestle-trees at each end. They are to prevent the shrouds chafing by the motion of the masts. CAPS are next sawn and trimmed and firmly fixed on the mast-head thus. The main and foremast caps of large ships are of elm, and made of two pieces, coaked or douled together in the middle; and others are of one solid piece. Main cap, in length, to be four times the diameter of the topmast, adding three inches. The breadth to be twice the diameter and two inches added, and the depth four-ninths the breadth. Fore cap, in length, to be four times the diameter of its topmast, adding two inches. The breadth to be twice the diameter, adding one inch, and the depth four-ninths the breadth. Mizen cap, in length, to be four times the diameter of its topmast, adding one inch. The breadth to be twice the diameter, and the depth four-ninths the breadth. The caps of yachts and similar vessels have a sheave-hole on each side for the jeers of the lower yards. |
Caps are trimmed or sawed to their dimensions, and their upper and under sides made straight and out of winding, and the ends and sides made square. If the cap is made of two pieces, to one piece is added the thickness of the coak. The coak is raised from this half, about one inch and a quarter on the middle surface, extending the whole length, and is broader on the surface than at bottom, resembling the tail of a dove, and is termed a dovetail. The bottom is one-third the thickness of the cap, placed exactly in the middle, and three-eighths of an inch wider on the surface on each side the middle-line; the thickness of the coak is lined down on each side parallel with the surface, and squared across at each end, the wood is then taken away on each side to form the coak. A coak is then sunk in the other half to fit the former, and driven together by malls, or by a carling slung. The two pieces are then bolted through with six bolts, one inch diameter, two at each end and two in the middle, which are driven from each side alternately and clenched on a ring. The holes are set off from the centre of the underside of the cap at equal distances; the substance left between the holes to be two-fifths the diameter of the round hole, and half the tapering of the mast-head in its length. The round hole is the foremost one, and is swept round with compasses three quarters of an inch larger than the diameter of its topmast, (to allow for leathering,) and is square from the underside to the cap’s length and breadth, and parallel to its thickness. The square hole is set of a little less than the lower part of the tenon on the mast-head, and tapered from a square to the size of the upper part of the tenon upon the upperside of the cap, to fix on tight. The boundaries of the holes are notched, and a hole bored through with an auger, at the opposite corners of a square hole, and one only in the side of the round hole, to saw them out to their sizes. Four large eye-bolts are then driven through the cap from the underside, one inch and seven-eighths to one inch and three-quarters in diameter, for hooking the top-block, &c. and, as the weight of the topmast and yards depends thereon, the iron should be the best, and the eyes free from flaws. One of the bolts is placed on each side the square hole near the edge of the cap on the underside, and one on each side the round hole, at the forepart, perpendicular or square to the length and breadth. These bolts are well clenched upon an iron plate set into the upperside of the cap. Caps douled together in the middle have three square mortises sunk in the joining surfaces of each piece, one in the middle and one in each end lengthways, of equal sizes, and placed in the middle of the cap’s thickness, about four inches square, and four inches deep. Oak tenons are then fitted tight into the mortises to fix into the mortises of the other piece, and bolted similar to the former. The round holes of all caps are leathered and nailed on the upper and lower sides. In letting on caps, to allow for their shrinking, the size of the tenon is taken one inch and a half above the stops, and that set off on the underside of the cap. The same attention is paid in cutting out the mortise in the steps, for the tenons at the heel. The caps are also to be raised above a level from the middle-line on the mast one-quarter of an inch to a foot in length, to allow for their drooping. Lastly. On the edges of the mast-head are fayed battens, set in over the hoops and fastened, and the edges are rounded, for the rigging to slide down easy. Masts composed of more or less trees, are coaked together. Those made of two trees are coaked together in the middle, as side-trees, with a coak and plain four feet long. The heel-piece first coaks on to the heel of the lower tree, and the head-piece to the upper tree, as they scarf under the main pieces. |
Masts, made of single trees, and cheeked, are rounded below the cheeks, and tapered at the upper part as made-mast, with the same number of hoops on the head, but few or none on the body. The cheeks below the hounds are either woolded or hooped with clasp-hoops, and then finished as other masts; but oftener hooped than woolded, in the East India and merchant service. Masts that head themselves (that is, those which have not separate pieces to form their head) are rounded to the lower part of the hounds, and the head square to the given fractions. (See Tab. Dimensions.) The hounds are raised by the bibs, and are twice the breadth of the mast at their upper parts, and form a bracket on the fore part to the breadth of the mast at the lower part, or hounds; they are from three to four inches thick, made of elm plank, and a bolt, three-quarters or seven-eighths of an inch diameter, is driven through edgeways parallel to the upper end, to prevent their splitting; they are then fayed to the sides of the mast athwartships at the hounds, with a coak in the middle. Their upper parts make the stops for the trestle-trees, and are bolted with three bolts, seven-eighths of an inch diameter, and clenched on a ring. The lower ends are rounded-to a semi-circle, thinned with a duck’s-bill snape, and nailed to the mast. The aftside of mizen-masts, in ships, and main-masts, in brigs, to be coppered in the wear of the gaff and boom. Cutter’s masts are oftentimes left eight-square four or five feet above the deck, and from thence rounded to the hounds, as other masts, and fitted with bolsters or cross-trees like a top-mast. When they have cross-trees, the heads are square, and fitted with a cap, similar to ships top-masts. Bolsters are only fastened to the mast when the mast and topmast are made in one, and the topmast above the stops rounded, and the head above the hounds left square. An iron hoop is driven on the stop of the topmast hounds, with a ring at the fore part, and another hoop set on its breadth at the upper part of the head, with a round ring on the fore part, through which slides the topgallant-mast, and is retained at the heel by a bolt through the lower ring: a sheave-hole is cut fore and aft through the topmast hounds, and commonly four large eye-bolts with shoulders are driven from the aftside through the mast-head, upon iron plates set in the mast, and clenched upon plates set in the foreside. The bolts are one inch and a quarter to one inch and a half diameter; the lower one is driven through the middle of the lower hounds, the shoulder downwards; the other three are equally spaced between the stop of the lower hounds and the lower part of the topmast hounds; the two lower ones are driven with the shoulder on the larboard, and the upper on the starboard, side. The aftside of the mast to be coppered in the wear of the gaff and boom. SLOOPS, SMACKS, HOYS, AND BOATS, MASTS, from a middle-line are trimmed thus. The heighth of the partners is two-thirds the diameter, taking feet for inches, set up from the butt or heel, and there set off the given diameter as before. In the middle between the partners and the stop of the shrouds, thirty thirty-one parts of the given diameter; at the under part of the hounds seven-eighths; at the upper part, seven-tenths; and to have stops of one inch and a half, or two inches, on each side athwartships in proportion to the size of the mast. Topmast, in the middle between the stops, two-thirds of the given diameter; at the upper part, three-fifths; and the square head above the topmast three-sevenths; and compleated as the former. Boats masts, not sloop-fashion, are trimmed round from heel to head thus: strike a straight line along the middle, and set up the partners from the heel, which is the depth of the boat, and there set off the given diameter; then set up the whole length, and line it to two-thirds the diameter of the partners; with a sheave-hole its length clear of the stop for the haliards. |
TOPMASTS, main and fore, after being sawed or hewed to the foregoing directions, are compleated thus: the block below the heel is left eight-square, and a hoop, two inches less in diameter, is driven on the lower end. The heeling is to be square, and the edges chamfered; and, if not sufficient to fill the hole in the trestle-trees, fillings are fayed and nailed thereto, to make good such deficiency. From the lower cap it is trimmed sixteen-square, and rounded to the under part of the hounds, which are nearly eight-squared, to admit them through the round hole in the lower cap. Sometimes ships in the East Indies, &c. have hound-pieces made of elm, teak, or harder wood than fir, fayed to their topmast-heads, and fastened as bibs on lower-masts that head themselves. The head is left square above the stops, and the edges chamfered between the underside of the cross-trees and underside of the cap. The whole topmast is then planed fair and smooth, and a sheave-hole cut through the block, in the middle of the after square of the larboard side to the foremost square on the starboard side. The length the same as the depth. The breadth two inches for every foot in length, and so in proportion for all sheave-holes. A groove is made on each angle of the heeling in the direction of the lower sheave-hole, large enough to contain the top-rope, when passing through the square hole in the trees-trees. In the middle of the heeling, a square hole is cut through athwartships for the fid; its lower part to be the depth of the trees-trees above the block. Iron fids are once and a half the given diameter of their lower mast in length, one-third the given diameter of their topmast in depth, and two-thirds their depth in thickness. Wooden fids differ from the former in depth, being made one-half the diameter of the topmast. Fids are made square, to the given dimensions, and one end rounded, the other snaped from the underside, and a hole for a lanyard in both ends. The upper sheave-hole for the top-rope to be four inches above the heeling, cut through transversely to the lower one, by boring four or more holes through with an auger the breadth of the sheave-hole, and then cleared straight through with chissels: all other sheave-holes in the same manner. Eighteen-gun sloops, and vessels under that size, in the Royal Navy, and most ships in the Merchant-service, have a sheave-hole for the topsail-tye cut through the middle of the hounds fore and aft; but, as it weakens the mast, it is better avoided. Topmast trestle and cross trees are differently fitted from the lower ones. The length of the trestle-trees is three inches and a half to every yard their topmasts are in length; and each cross-tree one-third longer than the trestle-trees. Depth of the trestle-trees, one inch and an eighth to every foot in the length. Breadth, two-thirds the depth, Depth of the cross-trees, seven-eighths of the depth of the trestle-trees. Breadth, one-fourth more than the breadth of the trestle-trees. The trestle-trees are trimmed similar to the lower ones, and a sheave-hole cut through the foremost end of each main-topmast trestle-tree, not exactly fore and aft, but at angles with the length: the foremost ends to be without the middle of the trestle-tree, to teach fair with the fore topgallant braces; there are to be, likewise, two sheave-holes in the after ends of the fore-topmast trees-trees. The cross-trees are trimmed (mostly sawed) straight on their under sides, but mould straight only one-third the length in the middle, and round aft from thence on each side with a curve one-third the diameter of the topmast, and one-half their breadth; they hold a parallel depth in the middle three-sevenths the length, and taper from thence to half the depth at the ends, which are rounded, and a hole bored four inches within for the topgallant shrouds. The cross-trees are set into the trestle-trees, with scores, as the lower ones, to half the depth of the cross-tree, and face on half an inch. The middle of the trees-trees is kept well with the top- |
mast head at the foreside, and the middle cross-tree let in between that and the topgallant-mast heel, the foreside of the after cross-tree to the exact size of the topmast-head, and the aftside of the fore-cross-tree about one inch less in the clear, and both fastened to the trestle-trees with bolts seven-eighths to five-eighths of an inch diameter, driven through the middle from the upperside with a saucer-head, and secured underneath with a forelock turned upon a ring. They are then got over the topmast-head, and fixed firm on the stop of the hounds. Bolsters are fayed upon the trestle-trees on each side of the mast-head, like the lower ones. The cap is trimmed and fitted as the lower cap, and differs little but in size, except in the eyebolts, which are driven the same distance on each side the round hole, and are, in diameter, one inch and an eighth, to seven-eighths of an inch; the other bolts in proportion. Length, four times the given diameter of the topgallant-mast, and one inch added. Breadth, twice that diameter. And depth, seven-fifteenths the breadth. Close up under the cap on each side athwartships are cheek-blocks, tenoned into the topmast-head. The length, twice and a half the depth of the head, and six inches added for the three tenons. Half the depth of the head in thickness, and two-thirds the depth in breadth; made of elm; and the whole thickness divided to make the tenons, sheave-holes, and back. Viz. The depth of the tenons and the thickness of the back are each three-eighths of the whole thickness, and the remainder for the sheave-hole. The tenons to be two inches square, one in the middle, and one at each end; and the sheave-holes the thickness of the rope longer than the breadth. The back of the block is divided into three parts, and one-third on each side bearded down to one-third the thickness of the back at each edge. They are then set in to the topmast-head with mortises, and holes are bored through the centre of the sheave-holes, that the sheaves may work on the bolts which fasten them to the mast-head. The bolts are saucer-headed, and forelocked on a ring. The blocks are not fastened until the topmast is in its place through the hole of the lower cap. The sheave-holes are coppered, to prevent the blocks chafing with the rope. Most sheave-holes in yards, &c. are the same, or sometimes guarded on the edges by a thick wire driven into the solid. Mizen-topmasts are trimmed as the former in proportion, but differ thus: viz. They have no block below the heel, only a square heeling at the butt, and a sheave-hole cut fore and aft through the hounds, one-third its length below the stops, for the topsail tye, in all ships. If a long pole-head, it is rounded above the stops, and a sheave-hole cut through, fore and aft, once and a half its length above the stops, for the staysail haliards, and another sheave-hole, half its length below the head, for the mizen topgallant tye. Lastly, a square tenon is made on the upper part, as large as the head will admit, for the truck, which has a mortise the size of the tenon cut out in the middle, and driven on tight to its thickness. Topgallant-masts trim as the mizen-topmast with a pole-head, except when royal-masts are used, and then like a mizen-topmast with a square head. Royal-masts are trimmed similar to topgallant masts or flagstaffs. Trysail-masts step upon deck close abaft the mainmast of snows, and their heads fix underneath the aftside of the top. At the head they are trimmed round to three-fourths the diameter at the heel. Boats masts as before described. |
BOWSPRITS. Bowsprits made of two trees, are coaked together in the middle, and bolted as masts, and lined to the size the fore and aft way from a middle-line on the ‘thwartship side, and hewed plumb: then canted up, and a middle-line struck along the upperside, and the eight-square set off. The same on the opposite side, and trimmed as the mast. Then canted down, and the fishes coaked on to the ‘thwartship sides, fastened and lined to the bigness athwartships, then eight-squared, sixteen-squared, and rounded, except the square at the outer end, which haunches from thence into the round. Then station the hoops thus: five to be in the lower drift of a first rate ship, and four in a second and third, from the heel to the bed, and nine in the upper drift of the first rate, and eight in the second and third, from the bed to the square at the outer end, and two mould-hoops on the squares of each rate. The hoops are then driven on to their stations as before. Place the hoops clear of the tenon at the heel, the bed, the gammoning, and tenon at the outer end. Bowsprits made of single trees are sixteen-squared and rounded to the square at the outer end as before. Those left square within the bow are sixteen-squared, and rounded from thence to the outer end, and planed smooth and fair. The former have two or three hoops driven on the heel; the latter only one, let into the heel. The bowsprit cap is next trimmed, and let on the outer end with a tenon. The length of the cap is five times the diameter of the jib-boom; the breadth, twice the diameter of the jib-boom, and half the diameter of the jack-staff; and the thickness four-ninths the breadth. Set off what the bowsprit stives in the thickness of the cap before the length. The fore and aftsides of the cap are trimmed or sawed straight and out of winding, and are of a parallel thickness. The ‘thwartship sides are cut square and parallel to the breadth. The ends are cut square athwart, and fore and aft to the stive of the bowsprit. Then a line is struck lengthways on the fore and aft side the cap near the middle, leaving half the diameter of the jack-staff on the starboard side. Then set off, parallel from the upper part of the cap, once its thickness, for the upperside of the hole that the jib-boom slides through. Then set off the diameter of the jib-boom on each side square from the upperside of the hole and parallel, and race it across on the fore and after sides. Then set off half the diameter of the jib-boom on each side the middle-line on the cap; and sweep the hole to an oval. In setting off the hole, three-quarters of an inch is to be added for leathering. From the under part of this hole, set down two-sevenths the diameter of the bowsprit, and square it across, for the upper part of the hole, which fits the tenon made on the outer end of the bowsprit thus; three-fourths the diameter is set off from the middle-line athwartships, and seven-eighths fore and aft from the upperside at the thickness of the cap within the end, and half the remaining bigness of the bowsprit is set down from the upperside at the outer end, and tapers half an inch in the length each way. Six bolts, one inch and an eighth to seven-eighths of an inch diameter, are driven through the cap, from the ‘thwartship sides, and parallel to the breadth; the four upper ones to be eye-bolts, and the two lower ones straight: the upper eye-bolt to be driven in the after hole from the starboard side, and the others from each side alternately, and clenched on a ring; another eye-bolt is driven through the middle of the cap, from the aftside, between the round hole and the upper part; the eye to stand up and down. Another eye-bolt is driven from the foreside at the lower edge, after the cap is fixed on the bowsprit, and belays with a forelock in the middle of the square part on the aftside, and a straight bolt is driven athwartships, in the middle of the square hole parallel to the aftside, through the tenon, and clenches on a ring. A groove is made, for the jack-staff, from the upper- |
side of the cap to the middle of the square hole on the starboard side; the groove to be the diameter of the staff in breadth, and half in depth. The staff is confined, near the upper part of the groove, by an iron strap, made with a semi-circle in the middle, to embrace the staff, and a hole in one end for a staple, and a mortise in the other, that goes over a toggle-bolt, and is there retained by an iron pin. The heel of the staff rests in a hole made in the starboard bee. BEES are made of elm plank. The length, twice and a quarter the given diameter of the bowsprit; the breadth, two-thirds the diameter; and the thickness, one-fourth the outer diameter of the bowsprit at the inner edge, and tapering from thence to four-fifths that thickness at the outer edge, on the underside. The outer ends are left square; the projection of the cap and the inner ends, one-third the breadth; and then turned off with a hollow and round. About one-fourth within the ends are bored holes, large enough to reeve the fore topmast and preventer-stays. The hole at the outer end of the starboard bee is made long enough to answer with the sheave-hole in the block underneath, and with the hole at the inner end of the larboard bee. The other holes are used when wanted. Seamen say the stays would lead clearer, if the sheave-holes in the bee-blocks were at the contrary ends. In the outer end of the starboard bee is cut a semi-circle, to answer the groove in the cap, for the heel of the jack-staff. The bees are set into the outer ends of the bowsprit, one-third their thickness, and one on each side; their foremost ends are fayed close against the aftside of the cap, the upperside well with the upperside of the bowsprit, and their outer edges raised above a level, three inches in every foot in the breadth; then bolted through the head of the bowsprit with four bolts, one inch diameter, in large ships; and with three bolts, seven-eighths of an inch diameter, in smaller ships. The holes are bored parallel to the upperside in the middle of the outer edge, and the bolts clenched on a ring on the opposite sides of the bowsprit, one at each end, clear of the holes. The others bolt in the middle between the holes. Bee-blocks are of elm, seven-ninths the length of the bee; the depth, two inches for every foot in the length, and the thickness, seven-eighths the depth. They are fitted with a sheave in the fore-most end of one and after end of the other. The sheave-hole, two-sevenths the length of the block, and half the length within the end, and one-fourth the length in breadth. In the other end of the block is cut a square mortise, under the other hole in the bee. The blocks are fayed to the sides of the bowsprit and underside of the bees, and bolted with two bolts, one through each sheave-hole, and belay on a ring with a forelock. The bolts serve as an axis for the sheaves. The tenon at the heel is similar to that at the head, and is seven-twelfths the given diameter athwartships, and two-thirds up and down, and tapers one inch in the length, which is one-third the given diameter. SADDLES. The saddle for the jib-boom is one-sixth the given diameter in thickness, and one-half in length, and fayed upon the bowsprit, one-third of the boom within the outer end, and a seat made upon the upper part, for the heel of the boom to lie on, clear of the saddle for the spritsail slings, and is nailed to the bowsprit, after the bowsprit and jib-boom are rigged. The saddle for the spritsail slings is one-eighth the given diameter in thickness, and fays upon the bowsprit, before the boom-saddle, and is made of a parallel breadth to its thickness, and chamfered on the aftside at the upper part, and nails upon the bowsprit about one-fifth the length within the outer end, and leaded on the foreside one-half the circumference of the bowsprit upon the same. |
The saddle for the running-rigging is similar to the above, and nails on the bowsprit just without the gammoning, but not till the bowsprit is rigged. It has several holes bored through fore and aft, through which the rigging is led clear into the bow. CLEATS are made for stops against the collars and gammoning, and are nailed on when rigging. The cleats against the collars to be in length one-half the given diameter; and one-fourth the length thick and broad. The cleats against the gammoning to be two inches shorter than the collar cleats, and the same in proportion. The ends are cut bevelling to the direction of the rope. Lastly, a woolding, the same as on the mast, is fixed just within the square at the outer end. The bowsprits of small vessels, as cutters, &c. commonly have an iron hoop set on, which nails to the outer end; with an eye on each side, and one in the middle, on the upperside, and a sheave-hole cut through the inner and outer ends. YARDS. After yards are sawed as directed, they are completed thus: those that scarf together in the middle have the scarf and haunches trimmed straight, and out of winding, on the inside, and a line struck along the middle, and a chain-coak set off, two feet four or two feet six inches long, and one-third the diameter broad; and the butts squared across and down the sides. The coaks are raised one inch and a quarter at the butt, and sunk to the same on the other side the middle towards the arm: the other half is then canted thereon, set straight and out of winding, and fayed as the masts, and bolted together fore and aft through the middle, in the butt of every coak; the heads are driven from the thinnest part of the scarf and clenched on a ring, and the haunches nailed. The yard is then sixteen-squared, and rounded from one quarter on each side the slings to the outer ends, except on the aftside, which must remain square two quarters on each side the middle. The whole is then planed fair and smooth, and the scarfs caulked their length and hooped, one hoop over the butt of each scarf, one in the middle of each haunch, and one between every bolt: then a fish of fir, two inches thick, and the same length and breadth as the square on the aftside, is fayed and nailed close over all the hoops. Yards lengthened at the quarters have their scarfs trimmed straight and out of winding. The scarf on the arm-piece is to fit the tongue on the yard, then to be driven on, set close, and bolted with three bolts, five-eighths to three-quarters of an inch diameter, and the ends of the scarf nailed. The yard is then rounded and planed smooth, and four hoops driven over the scarf, one over each butt and two equally between. Main and fore yards, made of single trees, are sixteen-squared, and rounded as the former. In merchant-ships, they have sheave-holes in their arms for the topsail-sheets, and are left square the length of the sheave-hole: but this method weakens the yard, and should not be adopted. Observe, should the tree be crooked, to place the rounding side uppermost. Topsail-yards, being trimmed sixteen-square, are rounded, and planed smooth and fair from the first quarter on each side the middle to their outer ends, and a sheave-hole cut from the upperside, its length within each outer end, for the reef-tackles. In some merchant-ships, holes are cut within the cleats, for the topgallant-sheets, but it is better avoided, as it weakens the yard-arms. Topgallant-yards, royal-yards, cross-jack-yards, mizen-yards, sprit and sprit-topsail yards, studding-sail and driver yards, are trimmed eight-square, sixteen-square, and then rounded, and planed fair and smooth from end to end throughout the length. BATTENING YARDS. Main and fore yards, main, fore, and mizen, topsail yards, have oak battens nailed on their squares, nearly the same length and breadth, and one inch to three-quarters |
of an inch thick; their ends rounded, and snaped with a duck’s bill, and the edges chamfered. The foresides have no battens. CLEATING OF YARDS. The sling-cleats, nailed on the foreside of main and fore yards, are once and a quarter the diameter of the yard in length, with a shoulder one-third its length. The breadth one-fourth the length. The thickness two-thirds the breadth, and nailed once the diameter on each side the slings. They are made of elm. Stop-cleats nail within the arms, on the fore and after sides, one inch and a half to every yard in the length, and are half the diameter of the yard in length. The breadth one-fourth the length; the thickness two-thirds the breadth. Merchants yards have their cleats sometimes raised from the solid; some are made of oak, others of elm. Topsail-yards have stop-cleats nailed on the foreside of the yard, once the diameter on each side the slings. Those within the arms, on the fore and after sides of the main and fore topsail yards, three inches to every yard in the length, and mizen topsail yards two inches and a quarter within their outer ends, or arms. Topgallant-yards the same as topsail-yards. Royal-yard cleats, are once the diameter on each side the middle asunder, and twice their length within at the arms. Cross-jack-yards have stop-cleats nailed on the foreside of the yard half the diameter on each side the slings. Those at the arms one inch and a half within their outer ends to every yard in length, and nailed on the fore and after sides. Mizen-yards have stop-cleats nailed once the diameter asunder on the starboard side, and once and a half the diameter below the middle of the yard: those at the peek, or outer end, once the diameter within. Sprit and sprit-topsail yards have stop-cleats nailed on their undersides; the spritsail-yard once the diameter on each side the slings; the sprit-topsail-yard half the diameter on each side: those at the arms one inch and a half within their outer ends, to every yard in the length; and they nail on the fore and after sides, contrary to those at the slings. Studding-sail and driver yards have stop-cleats, nailed once the diameter asunder, at one-third the length of the yard from the inner end. Those at the arms twice their length within. Boats yards cleats once the diameter asunder at the slings; some in the middle, others at one-third from the end, such as lugs, lateen, and settees, and the length of the cleat within at the arms. Yards are fitted at their outer ends for rigging out studding-sails. Main and fore yards have four boom-irons; one on each of the outer ends, the others at one-third the length of the boom within. The outer boom iron is composed of a ring, a neck, and straps. The ring, through which the boom slides, is the same diameter in the clear as its topmast studding-sails boom; breadth, three-eighths the diameter, and five-eighths to three-quarters of an inch thick. In one side a lignum vitae roller is fitted, one-third in length the diameter of the boom-ring. The neck is square, and connects the ring to the straps, each one inch longer than the diameter of the ring, and one-fourth its length in size. The straps are made one inch and a quarter in length to every three feet of the yard. The breadth, once and a half the breadth of the ring. Thickness at the inner part, three-eighths of an inch: they increase in substance towards the neck, and are made to the shape of and set into the yard-arm its thickness. Two holes are punched through the straps, for bolts, the ends made round, and holes |
punched. Two hoops are made the size of the yard-arm, one close to the end, the other nearer the neck. Inner boom-irons are made after the same proportion as the outer ones, but differ in shape. The straps are made to compass the yard at one-third the length of the topmast studding-sail boom, within the end, and the ring is separated from the straps by a collar; the upper part of the ring opens with a hinge on one side, and the heel of the boom is laid therein, and confined by a bolt passing through eyes opposite the hinge, which is retained by a spring-forelock through the point. Boom-irons fix on the yards thus: the rings are parallel with the axis of the yard, in a straight direction with a line struck upon the yard, in the middle of the square, between the upper and fore side. The outer boom-irons set in their thickness at each outer end of the yard, and are bolted through, clenched, and nailed; the two hoops are driven on tight, and stopt with a nail on each side. The inner boom-irons have their straps made hot, and encircle the yard at one-third the length of the topmast studding-sail boom; they are nailed through holes in the straps, and oakum misted round their heads to prevent their flying off. Boom-irons on the yard-arms of ships in the merchant-service differ much in shape. The ring the boom slides through is connected by a collar to a square hoop, that lets on, and nails to the yardarms, they being left square; and sometimes a round hoop to the size of the yard-arm. Others have a straight neck, projecting from straps, with a shoulder in the middle of the neck, and the part without left square. The boom-ring has a shank on the under part, with a mortise that fits the neck, and is there fastened by a screw-nut or a spring-forelock that goes on the neck next the ring. Topsail yards, main and fore, commonly have boom-irons at their outer ends, like the lower-yards in merchant-ships; in the navy they are mostly fitted with a boom-ring, and a sprig-eye-bolt driven in the middle of their ends, parallel to its axis, and an iron hoop set in its thickness and breadth, and nailed, to prevent splitting the yard-arm. Yards that have no inner boom-irons have saddles for the heel of the boom. Topgallant yards, main and fore, mizen yards, sprit and sprit-topsail yards, have their arms fitted with a ferrule-hoop, and sprig-eye-bolts, as the topsail yards. Mizen topsail and topgallant yards have hoops set on their outer ends, but no eye-bolts. Driver yards have a sheave-hole cut through the outer end, and a hoop and eye-bolt. BOOMS. Booms are driver, jib, and studding-sail, in ships; and main-boom, in cutters, sloops, &c. Driver-booms have their diameters set off from a straight line struck along the middle, like a top-sail yard. The given diameter in the Table of Dimensions is set off in the middle, and at the first quarter, on each side, forty forty-one parts of the diameter in the middle; at the second, eleven-twelfths; at the third, five-sixths; and, at the ends, two-thirds. They are then lined to that bigness, and trimmed like the topsail-yard. The inner end is commonly fitted with jaws, made of oak, that embrace half the diameter of the mast. The inner part is one-fourth of what is left on each side, and from thence breaks in fair, to the size of the inner end of the boom, to which it scarfs with a tongue two feet long, trimmed in the end of the boom, rounded, and then fastened with bolts, hoops, and nails, at the ends. One and sometimes two holes are bored through the middle of each jaw, fore and aft, for the parrel that confines it to the mast, and the sweep is leathered. |
An eye-bolt is driven through the middle from the upperside, between the sweep and the scarf, and clenched on a ring underneath, for confining the tack of the sail. A sheave-hole is cut through its length within the outer end of the boom for the sheet; and on the outer end is set on a hoop, and an eye-bolt driven in the middle of the end parallel to its axis. Sometimes an iron strap with an eye is fitted on the inner end, and fastened with bolts and hoops, and nailed at the ends. The eye of the strap is confined to a groove, by a pin in a hoop or strap round the mast. Commonly, in the merchant-service, an iron hoop is set on the inner end, and an iron hook, or neck, driven in the middle, parallel to its axis, that hooks into an eye in a hoop, or a strap round the mast, and it is moused or forelocks through a hole, to prevent its lifting. JIB-BOOMS have a straight line struck along the middle, and the length set up from the butt, and one-third that length for the cap. From thence to the outer end is divided into four quarters, and the given diameter (in Tab. Dimen.) is set off at the cap, and forty forty-one parts that diameter at the first quarter; eleven-twelfths at the second; five-sixths at the third; and two-thirds at the outer end. They are then lined to that size, and hewed plumb; then squared and eight-squared, and three times and a half the diameter set up from the heel, and from thence rounded to the outer end. Let a stop be made from the end once and a half the diameter of the boom, and a sheave-hole half its length within the stop from the upperside, for the outhauler, and another sheave-hole, once and a half the diameter from the heel for the top-rope, be made through the middle of the starboard square, next the upperside, and a hole bored through between that and the heel, the same size, for lashing down the heel. STUDDING-SAIL BOOMS trim alike, from a straight line struck along the middle. The length is set up from the heel, and the given diameter in the Table of Dimensions set off at the heel, and at one-third the length, and lines parallel to the middle-line, and from thence to two-thirds the given diameter at the ends, and rounded as before. The lower studding-sail booms have an iron hoop set on the inner end, and a hook driven in the middle of the end, parallel to its axis, and a hole bored through the outer end the diameter within. Top and topgallant studding-sail booms have a hole bored through the end. Main booms for cutters, sloops, &c. have a straight line struck along the middle, and the length set up from the butt; the length from the mast to the stern is then set off, for the station of the mainsheet. Then, between the sheet and inner end, divide four quarters; and between the sheet and outer ends two equal parts; and set off the given diameter (in the Table of Dimensions) at the sheet; and forty forty-one parts of that diameter at the first quarter; eleven-twelfths at the second; seven-eighths at the third; and two-thirds at the inner end, and between the sheet and outer end eleven-twelfths, and three-fourths at the outer end. The diameters are set off, and the boom lined and rounded, as the driver boom, and finished with jaws at the inner end. This boom is leathered its diameter on each side the sheet, and comb-cleats nailed over the strap of the block. Without the sheet are holes bored through for the reef-pendants, or notches underneath, made from the solid, and a sheave-hole, hoop, and eye-bolt, at the outer end, as the ship’s driver-boom. GAFFS have their diameters set off from a straight line, struck along the middle, and their lengths within eighteen inches set up from the butt; then set up four feet for scarfing on the jaws, and there set off the given diameter in the Table of Dimensions; and divide from thence to the end into four quarters; and set off forty forty-one parts of the given diameter at the first quarter; eleven- |
twelfths at the second; four-fifths at the third; and five-ninths at the outer end. They are then lined to that size and rounded, as before. The jaws are made and finished similar to the booms; but, owing to the gaffs being topped so much above a level, the jaws have a great bevelling. At the inner part, they have also an eye-bolt, driven through from the upper sides, and clenched underneath for the throat haliards, and one from the underside for the nock-earing, securing the sail and throat downhauler, and sometimes a sheave-hole cut through on each side, for the throat brails. A hoop is set on the outer end, and an eye-bolt driven in the middle parallel to its axis, and cleats nailed on the ‘thwartship sides, the diameter within the outer end, and a sheave-hole cut through from the upperside within the cleats. TOPS. The dimensions of tops are, their breadths athwartships, one-third the length of their topmasts; their length fore and aft, three-fourths the breadth; and the square hole athwartships two-fifths the breadth of the top; and fore and aft thirteen-fourteenths the breadth; and the aftside of the hole one-fifth the length of the top, from the aftside of the platform, and placed in the middle athwartships. Tops are made thus: the platform of close tops is made of three inch deals, down to a third-rate ship, of two inches and a half to a fourth and fifth rate, and of two inches for all under, in the royal navy. The deals are scarfed together half their thickness from the size of the square hole each way to the whole size of the top, and the edges fayed close together. The aftside to be straight, and the ‘thwartship sides square from thence, at the breadth, to the aftside of the foremost cross-tree, where the fore part breaks in with an elliptical curve. After the top is trimmed to its dimensions and the scarfs well nailed together, a rim of elm board (one inch and an eighth thick, in large, and one inch in small ships, and from eight to seven inches broad, except the mizen tops of small ships, which are only six inches) is nailed on the upperside, to overhang the edge all round, four inches in large, three inches and a half in small, and only three inches on mizen tops of small ships. Then station the timbers, which are made of elm plank, from four to two inches thick, according to the size of the top, and moulded to the same depth on the rim: to be four in number on each ‘thwartship side, equally spaced between the aftside and breaking in of the sweep, and seven or eight between them on the fore part, and one less on the aftside. Between the middle timbers on the ‘thwartship sides are cut two mortises for the futtock-plates, as far asunder as the timbers will admit, and one on each side them, the same distance, and four inches and a half within the edge, over which is fastened an iron plate with mortises punched through to answer the above holes; then fay the timbers close to the top and elm rim on their under sides, from the projection of the rim to the square hole, to taper on the upperside, within the rim, with a hollow to wear off to nothing at the square hole, and they are nailed through the top, with two nails in each breadth of deal, and clenched on a rove. Between the timbers are fayed fir fillings, of the same thickness and nine inches broad, on the ‘thwartship sides, and tapering from thence to half that breadth round the fore part; they nail as the timbers, and mortises are cut through for the futtock-plates, and chamfered on the inside round the fore part of the top. On the aftside over the timbers is a gunwale, made with elm board, eleven or twelve inches broad, and as many eighths of an inch in thickness, in large ships, (and in proportion for smaller,) and it is nailed through the timbers in each edge as before, and four square mortises cut through that and the rim for the rail stantions. On the ‘thwartship sides, within the fillings, is fayed and scored down over the timbers a chock of elm, eight inches broad, and three times deeper than the timbers, and three or more holes bored through, one inch and a half or two inches in dia- |
meter, in the middle between the mortises, for the futtock-plates, for fixing the swivels, and a square iron plate, half an inch thick, set in over the holes. The chocks are nailed through the timbers as before. The stantions on the aftside are from two to three inches square, and tenon at the heel into mortises in the gunwale and through to the underside, and at the head into the underside of the rail, which is the breadth of the top in length, and as much as the stantions are in thickness, and one inch more in depth. The stantions are trimmed eight-square in the middle, and the rail rounded on the upperside; the whole is well secured together, when the top is up in its place. Yachts and small vessels often have iron rails and stantions on the aftside of their tops, for neatness. Battened or open tops have the trestle and cross trees framed together, and a rim of elm board, similar to the former, nailed round the extremities. On each side the mast head, parallel with the trestle-trees, to the size of the square hole, are scored into the cross-trees, pieces the same in size, and two more on each side athwartships, scored into the latter pieces, and lapped underneath the rim, and well nailed thereto; then a cant of oak, similar to the fir fillings, on the fore part of the former top, is fayed and nailed to half the breadth of the rim, and kept well with the outside; then oak battens, one inch or seven-eighths thick, and four or six inches broad, are fitted fore and aft within the cant, except over the square hole, about their breadth asunder, and are securely nailed to the rim, cross-trees, and cross-pieces. N. B. All battened tops are made similar to the above. DAVITS for fishing the anchor to be, in length, three-tenths the breadth of the ship, and square at the inner end, one inch to every foot in the length, and at the outer end one inch less than the inner end, and trimmed thus: viz. After they are squared to the above size, they are eight-squared, leaving them square at the inner end, three-fourteenths the length, and a stop of one inch and a half to two inches made at the outer end, its diameter within the end. Three eye-bolts, of one inch and a quarter to seven-eighths of an inch diameter, are driven through within the stops, one from the upperside, for the mast-head, guy, or topping-lift, and one on the fore and after sides for the guys. The former is well clenched on an iron plate, set in the underside, the others on a ring. The heel is snaped to half its depth, the up and down way, to fay to the ship’s side, and upperside of the fore channel, and a large elm cleat, four inches thick, is nailed to the side over the heel to prevent its rising, and another upon the upperside of the channel to prevent its slipping. FIRE BOOMS trim as lower studding-sail booms, the same for size, and two-thirds their length. The inner end is fitted with a hook, the outer end with a forked iron, driven in the middle parallel with its axis, and a hoop driven on to prevent slipping. the following methods are taken, in fixing masts, in the royal navy and merchant service.
After the mast is raised by means of the sheers, the lower end is fixed; it is tenoned into the upperside of a large block of oak timber, called a step, secured across the keelson. The topmast is attached and secured to the head of the lowermast by a cap, trestle-trees, and fid. |
Between the lower-mast-head and foremost cross-tree, is a square space, bounded on each side by the two trestle-trees; perpendicularly above which is the foremost hole in the cap, and the head of the lowermast is solidly fixed in the other hole. The topmast is erected by the top-rope, which raises it to the head of the lowermast, and the upper end of the topmast is guided and conveyed through the holes between the trestle-trees and cap. When the topmast is raised to its proper heighth, the block or square part is fidded on the trestle-trees, by a bar of wood or iron, called a fid, which is driven through a hole athwart the trestle-trees; and, upon the topmast, in the same manner, the topgallant-mast is placed at the head of the topmast, and the royal-mast upon the head of the topgallant-mast.
THE FOLLOWING PROPORTIONS FOR THE
HEIGHTH OF MASTS ARE THOSE BY WHICH SHIPS AT PRESENT ARE MASTED IN THE ROYAL NAVY. The length of the lower deck and extreme breadth being added together, the half is the length of the main-mast. The length of the lower deck of a 74 gun ship is 176 feet. Breadth extreme 48 feet 8 inches; added together, they make 224 feet 8 inches; the half, or 112 feet 4 inches, is the length of the main-mast; which being determined, the other masts, yards, &c. bear the following proportions.
The diameters in proportion to the length, in the royal navy, are as follow: viz. The main and foremasts of ships of 100 to 64 guns inclusive, are one inch in diameter at the partners to every yard in length. Ships of 50 to 32 guns inclusive, 9/10 of an inch to every yard in length. And ships of 28 guns and under, 7/8 a of an inch to every yard in the length. The main-mast of brigs to be one inch to every yard in length, and the foremast 9/10 of the diameter of the main-mast. Masts of cutters to be 3/4 of an inch in diameter to every yard in length. The mizen-masts of ships of 100 to 64 guns, inclusive, 3/5 of the diameter of the main-mast; 50 gun ships and under, 2/3 of the diameter of the main-mast. Diameter of the main and fore topmasts, one inch to every yard in the length of the fore topmast. Diameter of the mizen-topmast, 7/10 of the diameter of the main-topmast. Diameter of the topgallant-masts, one inch to every yard in their lengths. Diameter of the royal-masts, 2/3 of the diameter of their topgallant-masts. Bow sprits of ships of 100 to 64 guns, inclusive, two inches less than the diameter of the main-mast. In 50 gun ships and under, the same diameter as the main-mast. In the merchant-service the proportion of masts and yards are variable; therefore Tables of Dimensions for vessels of different tonnages are subjoined. |
proportional lengths of yards, in the royal navy.
proportional diameters of yards.
Main and fore yard, at the slings, 7/10 of an inch to every yard in the length. proportional lengths of booms.
Lower studding-sail booms, 5/9 of the main-yard. Top studding-sail booms, 1/2 the length of the yards they go on. Flying jib boom, 5/7 of the bowsprit. Driver boom, the same length as the main-topsail-yard. proportional diameters of booms.
Studding-sail booms, one inch to every five feet in the length. Flying jib booms, 7/8 of an inch to every yard in the length. Driver boom, the same as the fore-topsail-yard. proportional lengths of gaffs.
Length of the gaffs, 5/8 of their respective booms. proportional lengths of staffs.
Length of the ensign-staff, 1/3 of the main-mast, above the taffarel. jack-staff, 1/2 the length of the ensign-staff above the taffarel. Diameter of the ensign-staff, half an inch to every yard in the length. jack-staff, 3/4 of an inch to every yard in the length. |
PROPORTIONS OF MASTS, YARDS, &c. FOR
SLOOPS, SMACKS, AND HOYS. proportional lengths.
Mast and topmast in one, thrice and 3/4 the breadth of the vessel.
proportional diameters in fractional parts of an
inch to every foot in length.
MASTS, YARDS, &c. FOR BOATS.
Long boats, sloop fashion, as above; but with lug-sails as follow.
lengths. Main-mast twice and a half the breadth of the boat.
diameters in fractional parts of an inch to every foot in length.
LAUNCHES AND CUTTERS WITH LUG-SAILS.
lengths.
LAUNCHES AND CUTTERS WITH SETTEE-SAILS.
Length of the main-yard, thrice and, the breadth of the vessel.main-mast, 4/7 of the main-yard. fore-mast, 17/18 of of the main-mast. fore-yard, 9/10 of the main-yard. Diameter of the masts, 3/8 of an inch to every foot in the length. yards, 1/4 of an inch to every foot in the length. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
BARGES AND PINNACES WITH LATTEEN-SAILS.
Length of the masts, twice the breadth of the boat and 8 inches added.topmasts, the length of the mast and 1/9 more. scarf to the lower-mast, 1/4 its length. Diameter of the masts, 1/16 of an inch to every foot in length. BARGES, PINNACES, AND YAWLS, WITH SPRIT-SAILS.
Length of the main and fore masts, twice and 1/4 the breadth of the vessel.sprits, 1/8 more than the mast. Diameters of the masts, 1/4 of an inch to every foot in the length.
explanation of the proportions in the fractional table.
The diameters at the quarters being given in what mast-makers call fractional parts of the diameter at the partners, or slings, observe, that the first quarter of the main-mast is 60/61, that is, if the diameter at the partners be 61, that at the first quarter will be 60: now, the diameter at the partners of a 74 gun ship’s main-mast being 37 inches, we have three terms of the Rule of Three given, and thus expressed, 61:60::37 to the product, which we shall find to be 36 3/8 inches.
In the Rule of Three there are three numbers given; and, if the second be multiplied by the third, and the product divided by the first, the quotient will give the fourth term, which will have the same proportion to the third that the second term has to the first. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Draw out the slide till 61 is against 60; you will then find 36 3/8 against 37 inches; so that 36 3/8 is the diameter of the first quarter; hence we have this general rule, when the fractional part is given, draw out the slide till the denominator, 61, is against the numerator, 60; then look for the diameter of the partners, or slings, 37 inches, as above, on the same line with the denominator, 61; and, against 37, the diameter at the partners, you have 36 3/8, the diameter of the first quarter; then, by using the same operation as for finding the first quarter, you will find the second quarter 34 1/2, the third quarter 31 3/4, the head 27 3/4 and the upper part of the head 23 1/8. It is presumed These examples may suffice to explain the manner of notation in the preceding proportions, and likewise the method of working by the sliding-rule, which may be applied to all questions in the Rule of Three, such as measuring timber, plank, &c. 
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A TABLE OF ROUGH TREES
MOST SUITABLE FOR THE VARIOUS PARTS OF MASTS, BOWSPRITS, AND YARDS. Rough Trees for Masts, Yards, and Bowsprits, made of single Trees, need not be above Two Inches larger than the Dimensions in the Table of Masts, &c. – Foremasts, Yards, &c. are made of single Trees. 
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Dimensions of Masts and Yards in the Royal Navy,
Taken at the Partners; which are at the Middle-Deck in Three-Decked Ships, and at the Upper-Deck in all other Ships. 
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Dimensions of Masts and Yards in the Royal Navy,
Taken at the Partners; which are at the Middle-Deck in Three-Decked Ships, and at the Upper-Deck in all other Ships. 
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Dimensions of Masts and Yards in the Royal Navy,
Taken at the Partners; which are at the Middle-Deck in Three-Decked Ships, and at the Upper-Deck in all other Ships. 
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Dimensions of Masts and Yards in the Royal Navy,
Taken at the Partners; which are at the Middle-Deck in Three-Decked Ships, and at the Upper-Deck in all other Ships. 
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Plate 1.
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Plate 2.
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Plate 3.
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Plate 4.
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Plate 5: A 36 GunshipsTop-masts, & Yards, &c,
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ROPE-MAKING. |
Practice of Ropemaking ith the Tools.
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THE
ELEMENTS AND PRACTICE OF ROPE-MAKING. The subject of Rope-making having never hitherto been fully treated on, every attention has been bestowed to render the following explanations clear and explicit. And it is hoped that a reference to the Plates, connected with, the descriptive Practice of Rigging, and the other parts of this treatise, will afford a satisfactory, distinct, and accurate, account of the several operations.
AN ALPHABETICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE TOOLS AND EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS USED IN ROPE MAKING.
Back-frame wheel for laying cordage, from a six-thread ratline to a two-inch rope, is about four or five feet in diameter, and is hung between two uprights, fixed by tenons on a truck, and supported by a knee of wood. Over its top is a semi-circular frame, called the head, to contain three whirls (that turn on the brasses) with iron spindles, secured by a hasp and pin. They are worked by means of a leather band encircling the whirls and wheel. Three of the whirls are turned when hardening the strands, and one only when closing the rope, the strands being hung together on it. The truck, on which the back-frame wheel is fixed, runs on four wheels, and is made of three-inch oak plank, about nine feet long and thirteen inches broad, at one end, and eleven inches broad at the other. BACK-HOOKS, large strong iron hooks, to close ropes and cables, fixed in the breast-board of the sledge. BANDS, to encircle the wheels and whirls, are of leather, large line, or catgut. The leather is for the spinning and back-frame wheels, the line for the table-wheel, and the catgut for line and twine wheels. BLOCKS, single, double, or treble, are strapped with a hook and thimble, and reeved with a rope, called the tackle-fall, which is used to stretch the yarn to its full extent, (before the press is put on,) by a capstern, or crab, at the lower-end of the rope-walk. The sail is then belayed, until every yarn is hove through the strands and brought down, so that the rope may not exceed the circumference intended. BOLTS for whirls are large iron pins with round heads driven in the board over the crank-wheel for the whirls to run on. BRASSES, set into the heads of laying or spinning wheels, are about four inches long and two broad. In the middle of the upper-end is a hole for the spindle of the whirls to work in. |
BRIDGE, an oak plank, thirty-two inches broad and three thick, fixed across the top of the kettle, with a mortise through the middle to admit the step, and a hole at the end for the yarn to pass through to the nipper. CABLES, ropes made of nine strands, that are nine inches and upwards in circumference. CABLETS, cable-laid ropes, under nine inches in circumference. CAPSTERN. A round body of wood, about eight feet high and fourteen-inches in diameter. It turns on a spindle at top and bottom, has four holes near the middle for levers or bars, and is turned by men or horses. Its use is to draw the yarn, when tarring, out of the copper through the nipper, to be coiled away in the yarn-house, and there properly hardened before used; if not, it will kink in closing. A CAPSTERN, or CRAB, is fixed in the ground at the lower-end of the walk, and is used in stretching the yarn to its fullest extent, before it is worked into strands, by means of the tackle-fall, led from the sledge to the capstern, they being about eighteen yards distant from each other. CLEARER. A tool similar to the hatchell, but with finer teeth, as the hemp is always finished on it for lines and twines, for sail-makers, &c. CLOSING of ropes, see laying. COUCH. To couch well is to lay close and even. COIL. A rope turned in form of a ring, one turn upon another, for easy stowage, and that it may run out free. CRAB, a sort of small capstern, fixed in a frame of wood at the lower-end of the ground, used to stretch the yarn, by giving power to the tackle. CRANK-WHEEL, for spinning of lines, box-cord, &c. is fixed on an iron spindle or axis with a handle to turn it by: It hangs between two posts; the after one is six feet high, one foot broad, and five inches thick; in its upper part, above the wheel, is let in a semi-circular board, two feet six inches long, two feet broad, and five inches thick, to receive three sets of whirl-bolts, with whirls on them, for the spinners to hang their threads on: at the front side of the wheel is a short post supported by a knee of oak for the spindle to rest on. DRAGS are formed like the after part of the sledge, to which they are fastened by ropes, and are lined with a board on the upper side. They contain weight, as a press, when the rope requires more than the sledge can carry to keep the strands of a proper stretch, and prevent their kinking, as they get hard, and as the rope is brought to its intended size. FIDS, to make eyes, splices, &c. in large ropes, are round lignum-vitae pins, thick at one end and tapering to a point. They are from eight to twenty inches long. FOREGANGER, a short piece of rope, one quarter of an inch in circumference, (larger than a whale-line,) to fix on the harpoon when they strike a whale. FORE-LOCK-HOOKS are made of iron, with a long neck and handle; they have an eye at the end of the neck for the fore-lock to go through, and are to hang the yarn on, to harden and close ropes, from two-inches and a quarter and upwards. GROUND-TOW, the loose hemp that comes from the sides of the hatchellers and spinners. A HATCHELL, to clear the ends of the hemp, by drawing it through, has forty sharp-pointed iron teeth, one foot long, fixed in wood. HAULED ABOUT is a term used in making a short cable-laid rope, when one strand is made long enough to make three; or, for a four strand rope, long enough to make two, and form an eye at the lower end for a stay. |
A HAUL OF YARN is about four-hundred threads, when warped off the winches, with a slight turn in it, to be tarred. HAWSERS, ropes made of three or four single strands. When made of four strands it is called shroud-laid, and is used in merchant-ships. HEART, a strand slack twisted, used in some four-strand ropes it is run down the middle, to fill the vacancy that would otherwise occur, and thereby forms a round. It is best hawser-laid. IRON JACKS, sometimes used instead of the table-wheel or back-frame wheel, differ from the latter by having an iron wheel with cogs, which work in the whirls, they having iron cogs like-wise. JUNK, old cables or hawser-ropes, cut into various lengths. KINKING, the twisting or curling of a rope, by being twisted too hard. KNITTING, the tying together certain quantities of yarn, when warping into hauls to be tarred. LAYING, the closing of the strands together to compose the rope. LAYING-HOOK, the hook on which the strands are all hung together for laying or closing. LOPER, used to lay lines, has two iron swivel-hooks (that run round in a brass or iron box) at each end, for the line to hang on, and work, by the power of the fore turn, from the wheel at the upper end. MARKING-YARN, a white thread, untarred, laid in rope for the king’s or East-India company’s mark. That for the king’s is spun the contrary way. MARLINE-SPIKES, to make eyes, splices, &c. in small ropes, are long iron pins, in shape of a fid, from eight to sixteen inches long. MAIL, to rub off the loose hemp that remains on white cordage, is a kind of steel chain-work, flat, and fastened upon leather, about nine-inches long and seven-inches broad. NIBBED-HOOKS are of iron, used to hang the yarn on to harden the strands, and lay ropes from two inches and a quarter to three inches and a quarter. A NIPPER is formed of two steel plates, eight inches square and half an inch thick, with a semi-oval hole in each four inches wide, which, by the upper plate moving, enlarges or contracts as the tarring of the yarn requires. It is thus fixed. A post, twelve inches square, is placed between the kettle and capstern, with a mortise cut eighteen inches long from the kettle’s surface and five inches wide. The under-plate is turned up on each side, to form two grooves, and is set into the front-side of the post from the lower part of the mortise: the upper-plate has a dove-tail on the back, that slides up and down in a groove into the grooves of the lower plate, and, by a staff, made fast to its front, it is highered or lowered, and regulated by a weight suspended at the other end, so that the yarn receives no more tar than is required, and what is squeezed out drops in a trough and returns into the kettle. PENDANTS, short pieces of rope, doubled, with a large eye spliced at each end, and a thimble seized in the bight, used to hook the tackles where wanted. POSTS AND RAILS, along the whole length of the walk. The posts are eight feet high, exactly opposite to each other, and support, on the head, the rails that cross the ground, in which are iron hooks for the spinner to hang his yarn on as he spins it. PRESS-BARRELS are old tar-barrels filled with clay, and laid on the sledge or drag to add weight when the rope is closing. |
RAN, twenty cords of twine, wound on a reel, and every cord so parted by a knot as to be easily separated. REACHING-POST, a post sixteen or eighteen inches diameter, and about four feet high, fixed in the ground at the lower-end of the walk. It is used in stretching the yarn by means of a tackle, one of the blocks of which is hooked to a strap round the post, the other block to a pendant at the sledge, they being about eighteen yards distant from each other. REELS to reel ropes on, from a six-thread ratline to a two-inch rope, have four ribs fixed at each end in a flat circular piece of wood; round the edges, are blades, or handles, to turn them: one of the circular pieces is called the head, and is made to slide off for taking the coil away. They turn on an iron spindle with a round head, and are from ten to thirty-six inches long, and from twelve to eighteen inches diameter. REELS, HAND, are used for reeling marline and other lines. They are narrow boards, with three or four holes at each end, in which pegs are fixed to reel the line on. REELS, TWINE, have four oak bars, about eighteen inches long, one of which slides for the conveniency of taking off the twine. ROPE-HOUSE GROUND, OR WALK, should be four-hundred yards long and about ten broad. At the upper-end are fixed the spinning-wheels, over which is the hatchelling-loft, also the back-frame wheels, tackle-boards and posts, winches for winding the yarn on as it is spun, and reels for reeling the ropes on. On each side are stake-posts: in the middle is fixed the warping-post; and, at the lower-end, the capstern and reaching-post. Back-frame wheels for small, and sledges and drags for large, ropes, are used towards the lower-end. ROUNDING is giving the rope an additional turn after being closed. SERVING-MALLET has a round head, about twelve inches long, to serve round the parcelling and spunyarn, which is woolded round the rope, to work the worming into the cuntline of the rope. SERVING of ropes is binding them round with rope-yarn. SHIVERS. The foul particles taken from the hemp when hatchelling. SHORT-LAID, implies short-twisted. SHORT-HAULS, hauls of yarn for rope short of the common length. SHORTS. The toppings and tailings of the hemp, which are dressed for bolt-ropes and whale-lines. Shorts, also, implies the distinction between the long hemp used in making staple-ropes, and inferior hemp. SLACK-LAID means slack-twisted. SLEDGES are frames made of strong oak, clamped with iron in different parts. They are from three feet wide and eight or twelve feet long to five feet wide and fifteen feet long, according to the size of the rope. The two sides are the length of the sledge, made of oak, five by seven inches thick, and tied in with oak bars at each end: near the front are two uprights, five feet high, set into the sides, and supported by two slanting pieces from the upper-end. A breast-board, nine inches wide and from two to three inches thick, is fastened with iron pins to the uprights, and contains holes for the hooks to go through on which the yarn is hung, which, being turned by men, is twisted into rope, and so closed or finished. These sledges are loaded to such a degree as the rope in making requires. SPINNING-WHEEL, for twelve spinners, to spin yarn at the same time, is about five feet in diameter, and is hung between two posts fixed in the ground: over its top is fixed a semi-circular |
frame, called the head, which contains twelve whirls, that turn on iron spindles, with hooks to their front-ends to hang the hemp on, and are worked by means of a leather band encircling the wheel and whirls. STAFFS for tops are round, from six to eight feet long, and from two and a half to five inches diameter, which go through a hole in the top, or are confined under it by a bolt and tails: they run on a truck-wheel at the lower-end as the rope closes. STAFF for the nipper is an oak bar seven feet long and four inches square, one end is fixed in an iron strap on the upper-plate of the nipper; on the other end a weight is suspended sufficient to press the tar out of the yarn. STAKE-POSTS are of oak, about four feet high and twelve inches diameter, with a mortise-hole in each for the stake-heads to go in and out, to keep the rope from the ground. They are placed about ten yards distant from each other along the whole length of the walk. STAKE-HEADS are about four feet long and four by three inches square, with four wooden pins to keep the strands asunder. For lines they are about two feet long and three by two inches square and have six pins. STAPLE-ROPES, a term for ropes made of hemp not inferior to clean Petersburgh. STEP, OR TONGUE, for the tar-kettle, is made of three-inch oak plank, five feet long and thirteen inches broad, which tapers to nine inches at the bottom, and is put into the kettle through a mortise in the bridge. Within four inches of the lower-end of the step is a round hole five inches diameter, for the yarn to pass through. The step is suspended and regulated by a tackle. STOVING is placing of white rope in an iron stove or oven, to which heat is communicated by means of a flue, which makes the rope more limber and pliant to receive the tar. STRAND, one of the twists or divisions of which a rope is composed. STRAP, a number of yarns platted together with an eye at one end, to put a stick through: it is bound round the end of the tails to twist them tight when the rope is to be laid hard. Some have a hook at the other end, to hook the strands in laying: others are made of the same sized rope as the pendants, with an eye spliced in each end. STRAPS, pieces of rope spliced to surround blocks, or fasten large ropes, &c. TABLE-WHEEL, to lay ropes, from a six-thread ratline to a two-inch and half rope, is fixed in the wheel-house, at the upper-end of the rope-walk, in a frame fixed in the ground, with two sliding cheeks, and bands to work the whirls, which go separately over each whirl, and round the turning-wheel. (Some have six sets of whirls, of different sizes, with iron spindles, and nibbed or forelock-hooks at the outer-end.) A tackle-board, twelve inches broad and three inches thick, with six holes for the hooks to go through, is fixed above the cheeks upon cleats. TACKLE-FALL, the rope that connects the blocks together. The whole assemblage is called a tackle, and is used for stretching the yarn, &c. TAR, a liquid gum of blackish hue, which distils from pines, or fir-trees: when prepared by boiling, it is used in tarring ropes. Stockholm tar is the best for this purpose, and no other is allowed in the royal navy. TAR-KETTLE is made of copper, and holds from ten to twenty barrels of tar. It is set in strong brick-work, and over it is fastened, from side to side, in the direction of the nipper, a bridge made of three-inch oak plank, thirteen inches broad, through the middle of which is a mortise for the step to go through to keep the yarn down when drawing through the kettle. On that side of the kettle next the capstern is an upright post, twelve inches square, in which is fixed a nipper, to press |
the tar out of the yarn; and a staff, with a weight suspended at the end, is fixed on the side of the nipper, to keep it down, that the yarn may have no more tar than is necessary. TOPS, to lay ropes, from a six-thread ratline to the largest cables, are conical pieces of wood, with three or four grooves or scores from the butt to the end, for the strands to lie in, and form a triangle. If too broad at the breech, the rope will not close well, nor the strands work so close as they should. A hole is made through the centre of the top, one-third the length from the biggest end, for the staff or bolt to go through, round which are put pieces of old rope, called tails, for the layer to close the rope with, and lay it hard or slack, according to the use it is for. A hole is likewise made through the middle of the top length-ways, for laying ropes with a heart. A collar is put on to assist the layer when the work is too heavy, and to enable him to hold the tails and close the rope well. TOPS, to lay ropes of three inches and upwards, have a staff under them, with a truck-wheel at the lower-end. An iron bolt goes through the centre of the top and is lashed down to the staff, on which the tails are put and rounded over the rope, being too heavy to be laid with the collar. A strap is put round the tails with a woolder for the layer to close the rope with. TOPS, to lay cables, have a leg to support them with a truck-wheel at the end to run, besides the staff which the tails go over. TOPS, for laying lines of all sizes, are of hard wood, tapered at the after part, that the line may close sharp. Those for sash-lines have four grooves, and for drum-lines eight grooves. TOPPINGS, what comes from clearing hemp when hatchelling. TOPPING AND TAILING is the clearing both ends of the hemp with the hatchell. TRUCK-BARROWS are of different sizes, have three wheels, and are used to take hauls of yarn from the yarn-house, and remnants of yarn, coils of rope, &c. from the ground to the rope-house. TRUSSELS have four legs braced together with stout pins: they are used at the upper-end of a rope, or put under ropes of a short length, when the strands cannot be put on the stake-heads. WARPED INTO JUNKS is yarn warped into short lengths for spunyarn. WARPING is running the yarn off the winches into hauls to be tarred. WARPING-POST, a post, fourteen or sixteen inches diameter, fixed in the middle of the ground for warping the yarn into hauls. WARPING-BLOCKS are used to warp the yarn into hauls for tarring. The tops and bottoms are made to separate, to let in the sheaves and screw down. WARPING-HOOK, for hanging the yarn on, when warping into hauls for tarring, is a large iron hook hung occasionally to the warping-posts. WHIRLS are of beech or ash, five inches long, cylindrically formed, and fixed on iron spindles in the heads of wheels, with a hook at one end for the spinner to hang his hemp on. They are like-wise used to hang the yarn on for hardening, and laying ropes, from a six-thread ratline to a two and a half inch rope. Those for twines and lines are made of box wood, with a hole through the middle, and two or more grooves round them, one to hold the catgut which encircles the wheel, and the other to hold a small cap, made of catgut, to which the thread is fastened in spinning or laying. The whirls for large work are four inches in diameter, with three or four grooves and an iron cap. WINCH (a) is, to wind the yarn on as it is spun, and consists of eight spokes, to form the body, and eight blades, four at each end, to contain the spokes, and an iron bolt with a round head to turn it on. |
WOOLDERS, single and double handed, are sticks about three feet long and four inches in circumference, with strops of rope-yarn made fast, to fix on the rope and assist the men at the hooks in closing the rope. WORMING is laying strands along the cuntlines of ropes, to make an even surface for serving. YARN, called twenty-five, twenty, and eighteen thread yarn, differs only in the fineness; the twenty-five being finer than the twenty, &c. It is thus distinguished, because either twenty-five, twenty, or eighteen threads a hook, make a rope of three inches in circumference, and so in proportion. THE PRACTICE OF ROPE-MAKING.
TO explain what ropes are seems to be unnecessary. Their utility on-board of ships, will be fully discussed in that part of this work which relates to the rigging. Under the present head, we shall develope the art of making the various ropes, not only those useful in nautical concerns, but shall extend our directions from the cable to the smallest line. Hemp for making cordage. Riga rhine hemp is the best; the next in quality is Petersburgh braak hemp; and of these cordage for shipping is generally made: but some Druana, Koningsberg, and Archangel, hemp, is equal to any except the Riga rhine. Memel hemp is inferior. Riga out-shot and Petersburgh out-shot hemp is little inferior to the Petersburgh braak hemp; and ropes made from them are with difficulty distinguished from those made of braak hemp. Chucking is a long, stout, coarse, hemp, rather foul, and used for making inferior rope. Short chucking is the foul hemp from the ends of the long chucking. Half-clean hemp is short, very foul, and full of shivers. Cordage made from it is consequently foul, and easily distinguished from that of the braak hemp. It is, however, fit for spunyarn. Codilla is a short hemp taken from the root-end of Petersburgh. The inferior hemps are chiefly used for ordinary white ropes for exportation. Italian hemp is of a fine, white, soft, texture, six or seven feet long, and is chiefly used in England for seaming-twine or fine fishing-lines. The bands, which the bales of hemp are bound with, are of the same quality with the hemp they bind, and are made into spunyarn; but, if very good and spun smartly, they will warp for packing-ropes and other cordage. Ropes should be made of nothing inferior to Riga or the best Petersburgh hemp, well hatchelled, to clear the ends, which else, in spinning, would run in with the long hemp. One pint or more of oil, according to the quality of the hemp, should be used to every hundred weight, to oil the ends, (which is done with a wad of hemp,) that they may pass free in hatchelling, and from the sides of the spinner when spinning. After the hemp is properly cleaned by the hatchell, it is spun into yarn. In spinning, the spinner must be careful to hold his hand close; otherwise the yarn will be neither round nor smooth. The spinning-wheel must be kept turning a constant regular pace, that the yarn may be spun with a regular turn or twist; for, if slack-spun, it will break in warping or straining up. |
In general, every yarn or thread for cordage should be spun the length of one hundred and sixty fathoms, and weigh from three and a half to four pounds; it should then be wound upon winches, and warped into hauls for tarring. The yarn for tarring has a slight turn put into it,* and is laid by the side of the tar-kettle: a piece of rope is then tied to one end of the haul, and carried under the step in the tar-kettle, through the nipper and round the capstern, which, being turned, draws the yarn through the kettle, from whence it is hauled off and placed in the yarnhouse. The tar must be well boiled before used, and kept gently boiling while the yarn is in the kettle. (Some think a brisk boiling makes brighter yarn.) If too hot, and the yarn not kept clear of the bottom, it will burn; if too cold, it will make it overweigh and clog. That all parts of the yarn may be equally tarred, the capstern should be kept regularly going; for if, by accident, it should stop, the yarn would burn; to prevent which, the step that keeps the yarn down must be instantly raised, and the yarn taken out. Yarn for cables requires more tar than for hawser-laid ropes. For running and standing rigging, the less tar the better, provided the thread is well covered. After yarn is tarred, it is laid in the yarn-house, for a day or two, to harden, before the hauls are opened, for making into ropes or strands for cables. The yarn, for twisting into strands, is hung on the hooks in the tackle-board, at the upper-end of the walk, and upon hooks in the breast-board of the sledge, at the lower-end, which are turned by men at both ends until the strands are hard: It is kept from the ground by the stake-heads. Before the turn is put in, the yarn should be stretched to its full extent by means of the tackle fixed from the sledge to the capstern, at twenty yards asunder, at the lower-end of the ground; and, when stretched to two hundred fathoms, the press is put on the sledge and drag, before the tackle-fall is cast off; for, if the yarn be not properly stretched before the tackle-fall is cast off, the rope will not be of its size nor well made. When twisted sufficiently hard, the strands are hung on one hook in the breast-board of the sledge, but remain separate on the three hooks at the other end. The top is placed in at the sledge, and the rope twisted by turning the hooks at both ends one way, and, as the rope closes, the top moves toward the upper end. [See top.] The strength of the men at the hooks being greatly inadequate to the force required for twisting of cables, woolders are used, according to the size of the cable, at equal distances, along the whole length. The strands should have a good hardening before the top is put in to lay the rope, and the layer should see that the heavers at the upper-end keep the same hardness that the strands had before the top set off, nor should he begin to lay the rope until the sledge or wheel is moved by the power of the twist from the upper-end. When the top is put in, some of the weight should be taken off the sledge or drag; for, if laid with as much weight as is used in the hardening, it would be too stiff, but, by removing a part of the weight, the strands will couch better. Cables should be rounded by the lower hook after they are laid, to throw the turn well up. They are generally thought to wear best when slack-laid; but some think when short-laid. Thirty fathoms of yarn, warped for each strand, will make twenty fathoms of hawser-laid rope; it being as three to two. [See table of yarn]
* Or is slightly, twisted.
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Thirty fathoms of yarn, warped for each strand, will make eighteen fathoms of cable-laid rope; it being as five to three. Thirty-five fathoms of yarn, when warped and hauled about in four parts, will make a stay-rope of five fathoms, the strands being shorter laid than other cable-laid ropes. Bolt-ropes. Twenty-eight fathoms and a half of yarn make twenty fathoms of rope. Buoy-ropes are commonly laid shorter than cables. The general rule for all four-strand ropes is, for every twenty fathoms to allow thirty-one, which is one fathom more than for three-strand ropes. Hawser-laid ropes stand, when closed, one hundred and thirty-five fathoms, and cable-laid one hundred and twenty fathoms. For hawser-laid ropes, the bigness in the yarn should be as 2 and 3/4 is to 3; so that, to make a rope of 3 inches, take as many threads of yarn as measure 2 inches and 3/4 and so in proportion. It has been proved that a cable of 10 inches and a half in circumference, made from very fine spun yarn, is equal in strength and duration to a common cable of 14 inches. CABLETS, used for tow-lines or hawsers, require the strands to be laid shorter than cable-strands, but not so short-laid in closing; for, being used in water, they would become stiff, hard, unhandy to coil away, and liable to break in cold weather. Yarn, for ropes of this sort, should be finer than for cables, and spun to run from 18 to 20 threads to 3 inches circumference. It should not be much tarred, (the yarn being pressed in making the strands, and again in closing,) as the tar would ooze out and the strands kink. STAY-ROPES have four strands, with a heart running through the middle, which keeps the rope true; and, when hawser-laid, as a rope, prevents it from stretching, and the strands have each their proper bearing. The stays are made of fine yarn, spun from the best topt hemp. Twenty threads a-hook make a rope 3 inches in circumference, and so in proportion for any size. The yarn is warped to the length and size for the stay wanted. The strands are warped long enough for one strand to make two, when hauled about and hung upon the back-hook. By this an eye is left for the upper-end of the stay to go through and form a collar to go over the mast-head. For stays of 9 inches in circumference, each strand should be 3 inches and a half, and so in proportion. The heart must be near the size of the strand, or the rope will not lie round and true. Particular attention should be paid in making the stays, as on them the safety of the mast, &c. greatly depends. Main, fore, and mizen, topmast, and some topgallant-mast, stays are cable-laid. TACKS, main and fore, are cable-laid, and regularly tapered from about 10 yards from the knot to the end; when finished they should be half the circumference at the end as at the knot; they are tapered by cutting away two threads from each strand in every two yards, (or more, according to the length,) from the beginning of the taper to the end. Twelve fathoms and one foot of yarn, when warped, are allowed for each strand in a tack 8 fathoms long, and so in proportion for any length. The single foot is allowed for the knot at the head. HEMP for BOLT-ROPE yarn and worming should be well topt, and tailed; that is, both ends cleared by the hatchell, or it will not make good thread. A thread of 180 fathoms weighs 2 pounds, and 15 ounces; and 28 fathoms and a half of yarn make 20 fathoms of rope, and so in porportion. BOLT-ROPE is slack-laid, made white, and stoved and tarred by the sail-maker when used. For the merchant-service, it is generally tarred in hauls, as other rope, but sometimes as for the navy. |
TILLER-ROPE is made of fine white 25-thread yarn, untarred, and contains 3 or 4 strands, with or without a heart. It is laid harder than other ropes. Ropes, from 2 inches to the largest size, for running rigging, are hawser-laid, and made of 3 strands on a sledge: these take more hardening and closing than those made on a wheel, and, when laid, stand 120 to 130 fathoms. They should be short-laid, a good hard kept up before, and the hook or wheel turned briskly about behind; but it depends much on the judgement of the layer. Ropes made of hemp inferior to Petersburgh braak hemp, viz. half clean or out-shot, ground-tows, and white oakum, purchased as old stores from the navy sales, &c. are easily known by opening the end for two or three feet, untwisting the strands, and opening the yarn a little way; if it appears short, in using it will stretch, and lessen in the circumference. Ropes made from topt hemp will not stretch so much as common cordage, for the short hemp taken from it hinders it from receiving so much tar. Deep-sea lines are hawser-laid; hand lead-lines, marline, house and sean lines, sean-ropes, and hammock-lines, are made from groundtows or inferior hemp dressed down to shorts, and what comes from it makes oakum. The toppings of all hemp, for bolt-rope yarn, stay-yarn, &c. is made into spun-yarn, containing 2, 3, or 4, yarns, which is tarred more than if for cordage. TWICE-LAID CORDAGE is made of cast rigging, as shrouds, stays, mooring and other cables, which, if not much worn, will make good ropes for wetting ships sides, worming and woolding for cables, spun-yarn for seizing, worming for large stays, seizing for strops of blocks, small cable-laid ropes for warping ships, ratlines, scaffolding-ropes for dock yards, &c. When the yarn of this old stuff is overhauled, a little thin tar should be poured on it, which will make it pliable and lie better. The yarn unfit for knotting will pick into oakum for caulking. To open a cable, for making it into small ropes, hang the strands upon 3 hooks in the tackle-hoard, stretch it out tight upon the hooks in the sledge, and heave till they are untwisted; then draw out the yarn. The process of making small ropes is similar to making large ones; except the twisting and closing, which are done by a back-frame wheel or a table-wheel. In all cable-laid ropes, the proportion of the circumference is to the length of the strand in one round as 11 to 15; that is, if the circumference be 14 inches and a half, the length of the strand in one circumference is 19 inches and 7/8. In all hawser-laid rope the proportion is as 12 to 16; that is, if the circumference be 7 inches, the length of the strand in one circumference is near 9 inches and 3/8. The strength of ropes depends on the hardening or well manufacturing, and not on the bare strength of the hemp; for it strengthens through every stage. Viz. When first spun into yarn, it is little better than hemp extended; when twisted into strands, it shortens and strengthens, and encreases in the same manner when laid into rope. Where the diameter and circumference of one rope to another is as 2 to 1, that is, where one rope is twice as big as another, the square of the diameter is as 4 to 1; which shews, that one rope has 4 times as much yarn in it as the other, and consequently is 4 times as strong, according to the different magnitudes. [See Table of the Proportional Strength of Ropes.] Cable-laid ropes shorten as 5 to 3, and hawser-laid ropes as 3 to 2; consequently, the length of the yarn and strength will be accordingly; that is, the strength will be in the yarn, after it is laid in the rope, as much as if the rope-maker, in spinning, had allowed the quan- |
tity of hemp in 2 feet as he he did in 3 feet, so that the strength communicated by the process is two-thirds. A rope is the same size when laid as the yarns were before twisted; so that what the yarns are lessened by twisting is made up by shortening; from which it is inferred, that the yarns are always of an equal bigness, since the hemp is the same at one time as at another, and not any way diminished. This strength in ropes, caused by the shape and form, is demonstrated by the following figure. 
Were the strands single, without being twisted one about another, the strength would then be only in proportion as the area of each particular strand is in itself; but, if the strands could possibly be twisted so as to be directly perpendicular to the base, the strength would then be found, by multiplying the diameter of the strands and the diameter of the whole rope one into the other, and the half of the product would be the strength of the laid strands; but more particularly take the area of the single strand and area of the whole cable, and add them together, and the half of that will shew the strength of each strand when they are well twisted together. But as it may be observed the strands lie at a certain angle between a perpendicular and the base, so that, as the angle of incidence is to radius so is the relative to the absolute strength. LINES, TWINE, &c.
BOLT-ROPE Twine, used in sewing the sail to the bolt-rope, is made from the bar of the long hemp, or from the long rough hemp unbeat. It contains two or three threads, is twisted slack, and wound into half-pound skains containing 200 yards. Eight threads are spun out of half a pound of hemp, each 50 yards long. Cod-lines of 18 threads are used on the banks of Newfoundland. The thread is spun 100 yards, having 6 threads to a strand, 3 strands to the line, and standing 40 fathoms, which weigh 3 pounds. Cod-lines of 15 threads, 5 in a strand, smartly laid, spun 90 yards, stand 35 fathoms, which weigh 2 pounds and a half. Cod-lines of 12 threads, 4 in a strand, are spun 80 yards. They are smartly laid, and stand 30 fathoms, weighing 2 pounds. Cod-lines for home use have 12 threads, 4 in a strand. Thirty-five fathoms weigh one pound and a quarter. Cod-lines of 9 threads, 3 in a strand, spun 80 yards, stand 30 fathoms, which weigh one pound and a half. |
Cork-lines for nets and seans, used in the royal navy, are made as the sean-lines. Ten fathoms weigh 3 pounds. Deep-sea lines, 18 threads, cable-laid, are made of good bar hemp, 2 threads twisted together, 3 to a strand. The strands before laid to stand 160 fathoms, and to be smartly laid. They will shorten in laying and closing to 120 fathoms, and weigh 12 pounds a line. Deep-sea lines, for the royal navy, are of 12 threads, hawser-laid. Eighty-five fathoms weigh 14 pounds.Deep-sea lines of 12 threads, hawser-laid, are generally for exportation. They have 3 strands, 4 threads in a strand, spun 160 yards, and stand 60 fathoms, which weigh 12 pounds. Deep-sea lines, used by East-Indiamen, are of strong rough hemp, cable-laid, 9 threads, 3 in a strand, spun 120 yards, stand 50 fathoms, and weigh 8 pounds. Dolphin-lines of 12 threads, 4 in a strand, each spun 120 yards, stand 50 fathoms, which weigh 2 pounds and a half. Drum-lines, for drums, have 16 threads, 2 in a strand; they are laid with a heart, spun 60 yards, and stand 20 fathoms, which weigh 2 pounds and a half. Drum-fish-line has 9 threads, 3 in a strand, is spun 65 yards, stands 25 fathoms, which weigh one pound. Foregaugers. Yarn for foregaugers is made of the best dressed long hemp, each thread of 80 fathoms long, weighing half a pound. It has 3 strands, 48 threads in each, and is warped to the number of foregaugers wanted. Hambro’-lines are chiefly used by sail-makers for holes-holes. The 12-thread lines have 4 threads in a strand, spun 70 yards, and stand 25 fathoms, which weigh 4 pounds. Hambro’ 9-thread lines, 3 threads in a strand, are spun 70 yards, and stand 25 fathoms, which weigh 3 pounds. Hambro’ 6-thread lines have 3 strands, 2 threads in a strand, spun 60 yards, stand 20 fathoms, which weigh 2 pounds. Hammock-lines of 3 threads, spun 100 yards, are slack-laid, stand 50 fathoms, and weigh 3 pounds. Hand-lead-lines have 12 threads, 4 in a strand, spun 60 yards, smart-laid, stand 20 fathoms, which weigh 4 pounds. House-line, of 3 threads laid together, used for seizing strops of blocks, is spun 60 yards, and stands 30 fathoms, which weigh one pound. Jack-line is made of bar hemp, and has 9 threads, 3 in a strand; it is made to any given length. Lead-rope, for nets and seans, is made as the sean-lines. Ten fathoms weigh 4 pounds. Log-lines of 12 threads are made from fine long hemp, 4 threads twisted together. The strands are smartly laid, and 30 fathoms weigh one pound. Log-lines of 9 threads are made from sound long hemp, three threads twisted together, spun 80 yards, smartly laid, and, when stretched 30 fathoms, weigh one pound. Log-lines of 6 threads are made from the bar of the long hemp that was dressed for fine twine, &c. and spun 80 yards in length. Two threads are twisted together, and the strands smartly laid: when stretched, it is 30 fathoms, and weighs one pound. Mackrel-line; 6 threads, 2 in a strand, spun 65 yards, hands 25 fathoms, which weigh half a pound. |
Marline, of 2 threads laid together, is generally used for seizing strops of blocks; it is spun 90 yards, and stands 40 fathoms, which weigh one pound. Sash-line of 4 strands, 2 threads in a strand, is spun 60 yards, and weighs 2 pounds a line. Seal-twine for seal-nets is made of 12 threads, 2 threads first twisted together, then 6 of them hardened together, and wound up in half pound skeins, or 80 yards. Seaming or sail-makers twine, for sewing the seams of sails, is made of the best long hemp, beaten, spun fine, and well dressed over a fine clearer; 18 threads are spun out of half a pound of hemp, every thread 50 yards in length; 2 threads are twisted together slack and wound on a reel, in half pound skeins, containing 450 yards: but 3 threads are used in the royal navy. Sean-lines, for fixing the sean-nets, have 18 threads, 6 in a strand. They are laid slack, and are from 30 to 100 fathoms long. Ten fathoms weigh 2 pounds. Sean-twine is made from good long hemp, each thread spun 54 yards; 3 threads are laid together. When hardened and stretched, each cord stands 50 yards; 900 yards are wound on a reel, and 18 cords weigh 2 pounds. Sean-nets are made of 3-strand topt-twine to any given length or depth. The meshes or squares are from 2 inches in the bunt regular to 3 inches in the wings. Seans used in the royal navy are made of 2-strand twine, 2 pounds and 1/4 to a ran, and 18 cords to a ran; 2 threads to a cord, or 900 yards of twine to 2 pounds and 1/4. Spunyarn, for ordinary white ropes, is made of bands, which should be twice hatchelled through a hatchell with finer teeth than those used to hemp for cordage. A thread of 180 fathoms in length should weigh 5 pounds, and be wound upon winches in 2, 3, or 4, threads, then warped into junks to make 2, 3, or 4, yarn spunyarn, and wound on a reel into coils of various sizes. Spunyarn should be well tarred, as it is used for serving round the shrouds and stays, to resist the wet and keep the rope from being chafed. Store-twine, used by sail-makers for old work and on-board of ships, is made from good long hemp, well dressed. Fourteen threads are spun from half a pound; 2 threads are twisted together, and wound into half pound skeins of 350 yards. Turtle-twine, for turtle-nets, is made of good bar hemp, spun 100 yards. Three threads are laid together, stand 90 yards, and weigh one pound. Whale-lines are made of dressed hemp spun fine. Each thread of 160 fathoms should weigh 2 pounds. These lines were formerly made white, stoved, and then tarred, as bolt-ropes; but they are now warped and tarred as other cordage: warped 90 fathoms, which, when tarred and hauled about, make 180 fathoms, and the line to stand 120 fathoms, 2 inches and 1/4 circumference, 3 strands, 24 threads in each, and weigh about one hundred weight. Whipping-twine. The same as bolt-rope twine. Whiting-lines, of 6 threads, 2 in a strand, are spun 60 yards, and stand 20 fathoms, which weigh half a pound. Worming is made of 2 or 3 strands. Two or more threads in a strand are warped into short hauls, and so knitted as to lay 2 threads together. It is tarred as other yarn for cordage. If it be made of 2 strands, it is laid with a stick, if of 3, with a top. It is used for seizing of ropes, and for worming the cuntlines of the shrouds and other standing rigging. |
A Table Shewing the Length of Yarn required for
Cables, Hawsers, &c.
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CABLES AND CORDAGE FOR THE ROYAL NAVY.
Government are frequently supplied with cables and other cordage from the merchants yards; in which case, they find their own hemp; and stipulate that they shall be made in the following mode, and with the following proportions of materials. A proper quantity of the best Petersburgh braak hemp, for the cables, &c. wanted, is furnished and delivered by government to the maker: each cable to be 100 fathoms long; cablets 120 fathoms; hawsers, down to 7 inches inclusive, 108 fathoms; hawsers, 6 inches and a half and under, 130 fathoms; and coils 130 fathoms in length: to be made of the hemp sent by government; which is to be dressed, spun, tarred, and laid, under the inspection of a person appointed. All cables and cordage to be tarred with good Stockholm tar, without mixture of any other, except about one-third part, which may be of Russia tar; and to be made of the same sized yarn, and with the same number of threads tarred as dry; laid with as good a press, and hardened in the same manner, as in his majesty’s yards; and to be in every respect as good as any made by his majesty’s workmen. A white thread, twisted the contrary way, is to be laid in all the strands of the cables and large cordage; and a twine in the small cordage for the king’s mark, so as to be seen on the outside of the strands. In any of the strands, there is to be no greater number of threads at the ends of the cables or cordage than in the middle of them. The tar is to be surveyed and approved of, by the person appointed to oversee the making, before it is used. An oath is to be taken, by the master or foreman, that the cables, &c. delivered were made of his majesty’s hemp, and tarred as aforesaid, and the affidavit is to be produced at the place where the cordage is delivered. With each parcel of cordage, a bill of parcels must be delivered, containing every particular; with the size, length, and weight, thereof: with a certificate from the overseer, that the particulars are made in all respects agreeably thereto, as to workmanship, size, and quality of tar. To each cable, &c. is to be fastened a tally, with the maker’s name, and weight and length of such cable, &c. The work to be delivered at the place agreed on, free of expence to government. The cordage is to be measured in the maker’s ground; and, should it exceed the following sizes, it is not to be received: Cables of 10 inches and upwards, 3/4 of an inch. Cables of 9 inches and a half to 4 inches, 1/2 an inch. Hawsers of 12 inches to 7 inches and a half, 3/4 of an inch. Hawsers of 7 inches to 4 inches, 1/2 an inch. |
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CONTRACT FOR CORDAGE WITH THE EAST-INDIA COMPANY, 1792.
The cordage is to be made of the best Petersburgh braak hemp, without any hemp-bands; the hemp to be viewed before spun, and the yarn before tarred; each yarn must bear the weight of three quarters of a hundred suspended, or the cordage will be refused. To be tarred dry with Stockholm tar, and the cordage laid hard. The ropes must not exceed the size, nor contain a less number of threads, than expressed in the annexed Table, which is, for cable-laid, 18 threads, and for hawserlaid 21; with a white thread put in each coil, and delivered to the company’s craft, free of charge, and bound up with new twelve-thread ratline. The company to receive the bounty, and payment to be made four months after delivery. The duty on cordage, imported, tarred or untarred, is 8s. 6d. per cwt. and no drawback. Bounty on the exportation of cordage, manufactured in Great Britain, not less than 3 tons, 2s. 4d. 1/4 per cwt. Old ropes may be imported duty free. 
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ABSTRACT OF THE ACTS OF PARLIAMENT RELATIVE TO THE MANUFACTORY OF, AND ALLOWING A BOUNTY ON, CORDAGE, &c.
The only parliamentary regulations, relative to the manufactory of cordage, are contained in the following abstract of "An act for more effectually preventing deceits in the manufacturing of cordage for shipping, and to prevent the illicit importation of foreign-made cordage." 25 Geo. 3. c. 56. 1. The first section of this act repeals the act of the 35. Eliz. c. 8. 2. From the 25th of July, 1785, no person shall use, in the manufacturing of cables, hawsers, or other ropes, for the use of shipping, or shall knowingly vend or sell any thereof, in the manufacturing of which there shall be used any hemp, usually known or distinguished by the respective names or descriptions of short chucking, half clean, whale-line, or other toppings, codilla, damaged hemp bought at public or other sales, or any hemp whatsoever, from which the staple part thereof than have been taken away by the manufacturer, under the following penalties; viz. every such person, being the manufacturer of such cable, hawser, or other rope, shall forfeit such cable, hawser, or other rope, and also a sum of money equal to treble the value thereof; and every person who shall knowingly vend or sell such cable, hawser, or rope, not being the manufacturer thereof, shall forfeit a sum of money equal to treble the value. 3. And, for the better distinguishing the quality of cables, hawsers, and other ropes for the use of shipping, it is enacted, that, whenever any cable, hawser, or rope, as aforesaid, shall be manufactured of any hemp, the use whereof is not prohibited by this act, and the staple and quality whereof shall be inferior to clean Petersburgh hemp, such cable, hawser, or rope, as aforesaid, shall be deemed inferior cordage, and the manufacturer shall distinguish such cable, hawser, or rope, by running into the same, from end to end of each cable, three tarred mark-yarns, spun with the turn contrary to that of rope-yarn, and also one like tarred yarn in every other rope, for the use of shipping, and by marking or writing on the tally thereof the word STAPLE or INFERIOR, as the case then be; and every manufacturer making default herein shall forfeit the sum of ten shillings for every hundred weight of such cable, hawser, or rope. 4. Whenever any new cable, hawser, or other rope for the use of shipping, shall be vended or sold by the manufacturer, there shall be affixed thereon a tally, containing his name, signed by himself or his attorney, together with the name of the place where the same was manufactured, under the penalty of forfeiting, for every such offence, the sum of ten shillings for every hundred weight. 5. If any rope-maker shall put his name, or permit it to be put, on the tally of any cable, hawser, or other rope for the use of shipping, not being his manufacturing; or if the vender or proprietor of any cable, hawser, or other rope as aforesaid, or any other person whomsoever, shall wilfully and knowingly put or mark, upon the tally to be affixed thereon, the name of any person, not being the manufacturer thereof, every person so offending shall forfeit, for every such offence, the sum of twenty pounds. |
6. If any person shall make, or cause to be made, cables of old or worn stuff, which shall contain above seven inches in compass, then every person so offending shall forfeit and lose four times the value of every such cable. 7. All pecuniary penalties or forfeitures, by this act imposed, exceeding five pounds, shall and may be recovered by action, bill, plaint, or information, in any of his majesty’s courts of record at Westminster; and all pecuniary penalties or forfeitures, not exceeding five pounds, shall be levied and recovered by distress, and sale of the goods and chattels of the offender, by warrant under the hand and seal of any justice of the peace for the place wherein such offender shall reside, which warrant every such justice is hereby impowered to grant, upon the information or testimony of two or more credible witnesses upon oath; and the overplus (if any) of the money arising by such distress and sale, shall be rendered upon demand to the owner of such goods and chattels, after deducting there-out the charges and expences of such distress and sale; and in case sufficient goods and chattels cannot be found, and such penalty or forfeiture shall not be forthwith paid, such justice shall cause such offender to be committed to gaol or to the house of correction, there to remain for anytime not exceeding three calendar months, nor less than seven days, or until such penalty or forfeiture, and all costs and charges attending the same, be paid; and all such penalties and forfeitures, and also all cordage which shall be forfeited, in pursuance of this act, shall be paid and delivered to the person who shall sue and prosecute for the same; and it shall be lawful for such person to sell or otherwise dispose of such cordage (after being cut into lengths not exceeding twelve feet) to and for his own use and benefit. 8. Whenever any ship or vessel, belonging to his majesty’s subjects, resident in Great-Britain, or any of the British colonies, having on board any foreign-made cordage, shall be navigated into any port within this kingdom, the master thereof, at the time of making his report at the Customhouse, shall make an entry, upon oath, of all the foreign-made cordage on-board, for or in respect of which the said duties shalt not have been before paid (standing and running rigging in use excepted); and such master shall, before such ship or vessel shall be cleared by the officers of the customs inwards, where any discharge shall be made of her lading, pay the like duties, for all such foreign-made cordage as shall be specified or mentioned in the said entry, as by law are charged upon or payable for or in respect of any foreign-made cordage imported into this kingdom; and is the master of any such ship or vessel shall make default therein, all such foreign-made cordage as aforesaid, as shall be on-board such ship or vessel, shall be forfeited to his majesty; and such master shall, for every such offence, also forfeit the sum of twenty shillings for every hundred weight thereof. 9. Provided always, that nothing herein before contained shall be deemed, construed, or taken, to charge any captain or master, of any ship or vessel coming from the East-Indies, with any duty, for or upon account of such ship or vessel having any foreign-made cordage on-board, such cordage having been, by such captain or master, actually brought from the East-Indies. 10. Provided also, that nothing in this act contained shall extend to the materials at present in the use of any ships or vessels that were built abroad before the passing of this act, and are the property of the subjects of Great Britain. 11. If any person shall think himself aggrieved by any matter or thing done in pursuance of this act, and for which no particular method of relief is herein before appointed, such person may, within fourteen calendar months, appeal to the general quarter-sessions, to be holden for the place wherein the cause of appeal shall have arisen, the appellant first giving fourteen days notice at least in writing of his intention to exhibit such appeal, and the matter thereof, to the person appealed against, and, |
within four days after giving such notice, entering into a recognizance, before some justice of the peace for such place, with two sufficient sureties, conditioned to try such appeal at, and abide by the order of, and pay such costs as shall be awarded by, the justices at such general quarter-sessions; and the said justices, at such sessions, upon due proof of such notice being given, and of the entering into such recognizance as aforesaid, shall hear and finally determine the causes and matters of such appeal in a summary way, and award such costs to the party appealing or appealed against as they shall think proper; and the determination of such justices shall be binding, final, and conclusive, to all intents and purposes whatsoever. 12. Provided always, that no order, verdict, judgement or other proceeding, made, touching or concerning any of the matters aforesaid, or touching the conviction of any offender against this act, shall be quashed for want of form, or be removed by certiorari, or any other writ or process whatsoever, into any of his majesty’s courts of record at Westminster: and, where any distress shall be made for any sum or sums of money, to be levied by virtue of this act, the distress itself shall not be deemed unlawful, nor the party making the same be deemed a trespasser, on account of any defect or want of form in the summons, conviction, warrant of distress, or other proceeding relating thereto; nor shall the party distraining be deemed a trespasser ab initio, on account of any irregularity which shall hereafter be done by the party or parties distraining; but the person aggrieved by such irregularity shall and may recover full satisfaction for the special damage in any action upon the case; provided that no plaintiff shall recover, in any action, for such irregularity, if sufficient tender of amends hath been made to him, by or on behalf of the defendant, before such action brought. 13. Actions or suits then be commenced within three calendar months next after the cause of action shall have arisen, and not afterwards. ———
abstract of an act for allowing a bounty on the exportation of british-made cordage; and for discontinuing the drawbacks upon foreign rough hemp exported. 6 geo. 3. c. 45.
THERE shall be paid for every hundred weight, containing one hundred and twelve pounds avoirdupois, of cordage, wrought up and manufactured in Great-Britain from foreign rough hemp, or hemp of the growth of Great Britain, except hemp of the growth or produce of the British colonies or plantations in America, which shall be really and truly exported out of this kingdom to parts beyond the seas (except the Isle of Man) by way of merchandize, and so in proportion for any quantity of thereof, by way of bounty, the sum of two shillings and four pence three farthings; which bounty shall be paid to the person exporting the same, by the customer or collector of the customs, with the privity of the comptroller of the port from whence the same shall be exported, on a debenture to be made forth by the said customer or collector, according to the entry of the goods and the shipping thereof, verified by the searcher: and oath is to be made, by the exporter or manufacturer thereof, on the entry or debenture before the customer, collector, or comptroller, of such port, that the said cordage is of British manufacture, and made of hemp imported from foreign parts, or from hemp of the growth of Great Britain, and not from hemp of the growth or produce of the British colonies or plantations in America; and exported, or intended to be exported, to parts beyond the seas, and not relanded, or intended to be relanded, in any part of Great-Britain or the Isle of Man. |
And the exporter, with one or more person or persons must give sufficient security, to the said customer or collector of the port, in a penalty of the value of the goods, that such cordage so shipped, or any part thereof, shall not be relanded, or brought on shore again, in any port or place of Great-Britain or the Isle of Man: and such security shall be discharged in the manner hereafter mentioned; that is to say, for such of the said goods as shall be entered for, or landed in, the kingdom of Ireland, the islands of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, or Sark, the condition of the bond shall be, to bring in a certificate in discharge thereof within six months from the date of the bond; and within eighteen months for such of the said goods as shall be entered for, or landed in, any of his majesty’s plantations in America or Africa; and within thirty months for such of the said goods as shall be entered for, or landed in, any port or place at or beyond the Cape of Good Hope: which said certificate, for such cordage as aforesaid as shall be landed in any port or place where any officer of his majesty’s customs shall be resident, shall be signed by the proper officer of his majesty’s customs there, importing that such goods were there landed, and testifying the landing thereof; and, for such cordages shall be entered for the islands of Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, or Sark, the said certificate shall be signed by the proper officer of his majesty’s customs, if any such officer shall be residing in those islands respectively; and, for want of such officer residing there, then by the governor of those islands, or the deputy-governor thereof respectively; and, for such cordage as shall be entered for any other foreign port or place, a certificate must be brought under the common seal of the chief magistrate in such place, or under the hands and seals of two known British merchants then being at such port or place, that such cordage was there landed; or such bond or bonds shall be discharged, upon proof, in either of the said cases, that such goods were taken by enemies, or perished in the seas; the examination and proof thereof being left to the judgement of the commissioners of the customs in England or Scotland respectively for the time being. Any searcher, or other proper officer of the customs, after the entry of any of the said goods, and before or after the shipping thereof, may open and strictly examine any ball, quoil, or other package, as now by law they may do, to see if the goods are right entered; and, if the same shalt be found to be right entered, the officer shall, at his own charge, cause the same to be repacked to the satisfaction of the exporter; but, in case the said officer shall find goods, or any part thereof, entered under a wrong denomination, or to be less in quantity than expressed in the exporter’s indorsement upon the entry of such cordage, all such goods, so wrong entered, shall be forfeited, and may be seized, and the exporter or owner of such goods shall also forfeit the value thereof. If any dispute shall arise, whether the same was made in Great-Britain, or is entitled to the bounty granted by this act, the onus probandi shall lie on the exporter, claimer, or owner thereof, and not on the officer.If any of the said cordage shipped to be exported, for which allowance is hereby made, shall be re-landed or unshipped in any port or place in Great-Britain or the Isle of Man, contrary to the true intent or meaning of this act, without the licence of one or more of the principal officers of such port or place first had and obtained, or unless it be in case of distress, to save the laid goods from perishing, the goods (over and above the penalty of the bond) and treble the value of such goods shall be forfeited and lost. The said allowance shall be paid out of money arising from customs and other duties upon hemp imported, or to be imported, from parts beyond the seas; and in case any collector of the customs, in any out-port in South Britain, or of any port in North Britain, shall not have money sufficient in his hands to pay such bounty, then every such collector shall, if thereunto required, forthwith, without |
fee or reward give, to the person entitled to such bounty, a certificate under his hand, attested by the comptroller, certifying, to the commissioners of his majesty’s customs in London, if such cordage is exported from any port in that part of Great-Britain called England, or to the commissioners of his majesty’s customs at Edinburgh, if such cordage is exported from any port in that part of Great-Britain called Scotland, that he hath not money sufficient to pay the said bounty, and also what is due for the same to such person; and upon producing such certificate, and the debenture of the cordage exported, the said receptive commissioners of the customs shall cause to be paid, without fee or reward, by the receiver-general or cashier of the customs, at London or Edinburgh respectively, to the person producing every such certificate and debenture, the sum of money so certified to be due, out of the monies arising from any of the duties, revenues, and customs, under the management of such respective commissioners; and if the receiver-general or cashier of the customs, at Edinburgh, shall not have money sufficient in his hands to pay the bounty so certified to be due, the commissioners of his majesty’s customs at Edinburgh, or any three of them, shall forthwith, without fee or reward, give such exporter, or seller for exportation, a certificate, certifying the same to the commissioners of his majesty’s customs at London, which certificates being affixed to the debentures for the bounty of the said cordage so exported, and being produced to the said commissioners of his majesty’s customs at London, they are required to cause the money thereby certified to be due to be paid by the receiver-general or cashier of the customs, without fee or reward, out of the monies that shall be in his hands arising from any of the duties, revenues, and customs, payable on foreign rough hemp, under the management of the said commissioners at London. The bounty given by this act shall not extend to cordage re-manufactured from any sort of old cables, old ropes, or old cordage whatsoever, commonly called twice-laid cordage. In case any of the customs or other duties now payable on the importation of foreign rough hemp shall be redeemed, or otherwise cease to be payable, so much of the allowance, to be made on the exportation of the cordage before mentioned, shall be abated, as shall bear a proportion to the customs or duties so redeemed, or that shall cease to be payable on rough hemp. All drawbacks, payable upon the exportation of foreign rough hemp from this kingdom, shall cease, determine, and be no longer paid or payable. The several penalties and forfeitures, in this act mentioned, may be prosecuted in any of his majesty’s courts of record at Westminster, or in the court of exchequer at Edinburgh respectively; and one moiety thereof shall be to the use of the king, and the other moiety to such officer of the customs as shall sue or prosecute for the same. If any action shall be commenced against any person for any thing done in pursuance of this act, the defendant may plead the general issue, and give the special matter in evidence; if the plaintiff be nonsuited or discontinue his action after the defendant shall have appeared, or is judgement shall be given upon any verdict or demurrer against the plaintiff, the defendant shall recover treble costs. The preceding act would have expired but for the following one, which revived it for four years, and amended it. |
Abstract of an Act to revive, continue, and amend, so much of an Act, made in the sixth Year of the Reign of his present Majesty, intitled "An Act for allowing a Bounty on the Exportation of British-made Cordage, and for discontinuing the Drawbacks upon foreign rough hemp exported," as relates to allowing a Bounty on the Exportation of British-made Cordage. 26. Geo. 3. c. 85. Such part of the preceding act as relates to allowing a bounty upon the exportation of British-made cordage shall be revived for the term of four years, and thence to the end of the then next session of parliament, subject to the several amendments, alterations, regulations, and restrictions, herein after provided and expressed. No bounty shall be allowed or paid upon the exportation of cordage wrought up and manufactured in Great-Britain from hemp of the growth of the British colonies or plantations in America, or of the United States of America, nor for any cordage whatever which shall be exported, unless the quantity thereof shall be three tons weight at the least. Upon the entry for exportation, in order to obtain the bounty, the exporter shall make oath that the same is really and truly intended to be exported as merchandize, and not for the use of the ship during her then voyage, or any future voyage; and the master or commander of the ship or vessel shall join in the bond required to be given for the due exportation of such cordage, or, on failure thereof, no bounty shall be paid. Nothing in this or any other act contained shall extend to disallow the bounty on the due exportation of such cordage to any foreign port or place whatever, except the Isle of Man, but that the same shall be and is hereby required to be paid on such exportation, other than to the Ile of Man. Every ship or vessel, on-board of which any cordage shall be shipped for exportation, in order to obtain the bounty herein before granted, shall have on-board (over and above the quantity entered for exportation) a sufficient quantity of cordage for the use of such ship or vessel, according to the nature of the voyage, for which no bounty shall be allowed; and such ship or vessel, before clearing at any port in the kingdom, shall be visited by the proper officer of the customs, who shall not permit her to sail, if there be not on-board a sufficient quantity of cordage for the use of such ship or vessel, independent of and besides the quantity entered for the bounty; and such ship or vessel shall not sail upon her intended voyage until there shall be provided a sufficient quantity of cordage for the use of such ship or vessel. No entry shall be permitted to pass for the exportation of any such cordage, or the vessel having onboard such cordage be permitted to go out of port, unless a certificate shall be produced, under the hands of the commissioners of his majesty’s navy, or any three or more of them, signifying that such cordage hath been tendered to them for the use of his majesty’s dock-yards, at the fair and then market price of such cordage in London, and that the same hath been refused by that board; and if any person or persons shall pass any entry for such cordage, without having such certificate produced to him or them, such person or persons shall forfeit and lose the sum of one hundred pounds. There two acts have been continued for the further space of four years by the 31 Geo. 3. c. 43. Upon the importation of cordage tarred or untarred there is payable a duty of 8s. 6d. per cwt. and no drawback allowed upon exportation: and there is a farther scavage-rate in the port of London of one penny per cwt. of 112 lbs. upon the importation of cable ropes for cordage. Old ropes may be imported duty free. |
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ANCHOR-MAKING. |
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DESCRIPTION AND USE OF ANCHORS.
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the two plates of anchors will, upon reference, clearly
elucidate this treatise on anchor-making. ———
Anchors are strong crooked instruments, made of iron and wood, used at sea, in rivers, roads, harbours, &c. to retain ships and vessels from danger, or keep them in a convenient station. The goodness of anchors is of material importance, the safety and preservation of the vessel depending greatly upon them. An anchor is composed of a shank, two arms, two flukes, or palms, a ring, and a stock, which bear the following proportions. The length of the arm, from the inside of the throat to the bill, is the distance marked on the shank for the trend, taken from the inside of the throat; and three times that is the length of the shank from the tip of the crown; and the shank, from the tip of the crown to the centre of the ring, is the length of the iron stock: when made, the two arms, from the inside of the throat to the extremity of the bill, should form an arch of a circle containing 120 degrees. Of anchors there are the sheet, best bower, and small bower; these do not vary in form or weight from each other, in the navy. Stream and kedge anchors are smaller, and grapnels are for boats only. DESCRIPTION OF THE TOOLS, AND EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS, USED IN ANCHOR-MAKING.
Anvil, a mass of iron on which the work is forged or hammered. ARM, that part from the crown on which the palm is shut. BILL OR PEAK, the extremities of the arms. BLADE, that part of the arm on which the palm is shut. BOLSTERS, cylindrical pieces of iron, with a hole through the middle, used when holes are to be punched, or opened with pins. BOLTS, cylindrical iron pins for fastening the two parts of the stock together. COLLAR, made of iron, forms a sling suspended by a chain to bear the anchor to and from the fire. CROSS-BARS are round bars of iron, bent at each end, and used as levers to turn the shank of the anchor. They are from 3 to 5 feet long, and one inch and a quarter diameter. CROWN, the lowest end of the shank, where the arms are united. |
EYE. The hole at the upper-end of the shank for the ring to pass through. HAMMERS used in making anchors are of 5 sizes, and only differ in weight and length of handle. They weigh from 26 pounds to 3 pounds, and the handles are in length from 4 feet to 1 foot: and are used as the size of the work may require. HANCH. A sudden diminish from a larger substance to a less. HOOPS. Straps of iron driven on the stock. MANDRELS are circular iron instruments, forming a cone 4 feet high, on which hoops are driven to be made perfectly round. NUTS. Two projections on the shank to secure the stock. PALM, OR FLUKE. The broadest part of the arm of an anchor, terminating in a point to fix in the ground. PORTER. A straight bar of iron, about 2 inches square, confined at one end to the end of the shank: it has holes punched through at the other end for the cross-bars, which act as levers in turning the shank when making. RING. A circle of iron, in the upper-part of the shank of the anchor, to which the cable is bent. SCARF. The place where one piece is joined to another. SHANK. The longest part of the anchor. SHUTTING is joining or welding one piece of iron to another. SMALL of the anchor is that part of the shank next under the square. SNAPE. A sudden diminish of any part. SQUARE. The upper part of the shank. STOCK is composed of two long pieces of oak tapering from the middle, fastened together with iron hoops and tree-nails, and fixed on the shank transversely to the arms. Some anchors have iron stocks. TREE-NAILS. Wooden pegs to fasten the anchor stock. TREND, that part of the shank from which the size is taken. THROAT, the inner-part of the arms, where they join the shank. TWINING-IRONS, square bars, with an ess-hook at one end, which grasp the porter or the shank to turn it over. WELDING is forging iron when intensely heated. WELDING-HEAT is the strong heat when the iron is properest to bind. THE PRACTICE OF ANCHOR-MAKING.
THE shank, arms, flukes or palms, and ring, are forged seperately. The shank is made of many long bars of the best tough iron, well wrought together; great care should be taken that the iron be neither too soft nor too brittle; the latter rendering it liable to break, and the former to straiten. The number of bars, sufficient to make the shank of the size designed, can only (without the bars be all of an equal size) be regulated by experience. Several parts of the anchor are governed by the |
A 20 Gunships Stream Anchor Weight 7 C. 2 qs. 0 lb.
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size of the trend, which is marked on the shank at the same distance from the inside of the throat as the arm measures from the inside of the throat to the extremity of the bill. The shank is rounded to the square of the upper part, and is there called the small round, being the smallest part. The two sides in the direction of the arms are flatted surfaces, about an inch less than the trend, in large anchors, and something less, in smaller ones. The squared part is the same size as at the trend each way, and hanches into the small round, one sixth the length of the shank. The hole, or eye, for the ring, is punched through the square part, on the flatted side, once and a half the thickness of the ring, from the upper extremity of the shank, which has its corners flatted or diamonded, on the same sides, nearly in the middle. If the sharp edges of the hole for the ring were rounded off, it would move easier and be less liable to injury. Between the hole for the ring and lower part of the square are two small prominences, raised across from the solid, called nuts, for securing the stock in its place. At the lower part of the shank is left a scarf, or flatted surface, with a shoulder on each side, for shutting on the arms. In making every part of an anchor the nicest attention should be observed, as to its being smooth, fair, and even; and that the edges and angles are preserved straight in their direction, as well-made anchors should possess beauty as well as strength. The ring, being previously forged, is put through the before-mentioned hole in the shank, and the two ends are well shut together. The arms are made of shorter bars than the shank; but as good in quality, and as well put together; they are rounded and flatted on the different sides, to resemble the shank; and are the same size as the shank at the throat and small round. The rounding part is continued to the palm, which is nearly in the middle of the arm; from thence it is made with a square tapering to the bill on the flatted side; and, on the inner rounded side, is made a square seat for shutting on the palm, that the palm, when shut on, should project its thickness at the base or inner part, the outer part making a straight surface with the peek or bill. The back or outer side of the arm is made straight from the rounded part, or hanch, to the snape; and there kept to half the substance of the inner part. The snape resembles the bill of a duck, and is one-third the breadth of the palm in length. The thickness of the ring to be half the diameter of the small round. The diameter of the ring, thickness included, reaches from the hole in the upper part of the shank to the hanch of the small round. The inner part of the arm is mostly made straight, from the bill to the throat: it is thought stronger for having a small angle in its length inclining to the shank. Shanks taper in their length, one inch and a half in small anchors, to three inches in large, keeping their proper size at the trend; and three quarters of an inch to two inches the flatted way. The arm in its length inclines to the shank, and forms a small angle, the touch or point thereof being in the middle. The throat-end of the arm is scarfed, or flatted, to answer the scarf in the shank, to which the two arms are united (after the palms are shut on) in the firmest manner possible, and it is elevated above the horizontal plane, or inclined to the shank, that each arm may spread at the peek or bill. The length of the arm, from the inside of the throat to the extremity of its bill, is then taken, and that length from the inside of the throat is set upon the shank, and called the trend; from the trend to the bill forms an angle of about 60 degrees. The palms, or flukes, are two thick plates of iron, made of various pieces, well wrought together, in the form of an isosceles triangle; one inch and a half to one inch and a quarter longer than the |
breadth of the base, and curve about as much in their sides. The base or lower part, to be straight: the inner flat surface curves a little in the breadth, but is straight lengthways: the palms, being finished thus far, are lastly shut firmly on to the inner side of the arm, in the seat before mentioned, the base inclining inwards. The stock is composed of two long beams of oak, strongly bolted and treenailed together, and secured with four strong iron hoops, two on each side of the middle, and one near each end. It is fixed on the upper end of the shank, transversely with the flukes or palms; and the nuts are set into the middle of the stock. The length of the stock is the length of the shank and half the diameter of the ring. The depth and thickness in the middle is as many inches as the stock is feet in length. The ends to be kept square, half the depth or thickness in the middle. The upper-side next the ring is always kept straight, as is the lower-side half the depth on each side the middle; and thence it tapers to each end in the above proportion. It is necessary to leave an opening in the middle of one inch and a half, between the two pieces, that the hoops may be driven nearer the middle, in case the stock should shrink. The making of anchors is a most laborious employ, and has been much facilitated by the invention of two machines, called, the hercules and the monkey, of which see the forms in the plate. The HERCULES is used for setting straight the shank, welding the palms to the arms, and the arms to the shank, of large anchors. It consists of a weight of about 400 lb. faced with steel, and a long iron shank. It is suspended perpendicularly over the work by a rope encircling a small iron wheel fixed in a mortise cut in the beam. It performs its duty by being drawn up about seven feet high, by men at the tails of the rope; and, encreasing in weight by the velocity of its fall, it is found to produce more effect than the most powerful exertions with the hammer and strength of man. That the weight may fall on the spot required, a long iron rod, with a hook, is occasionally fixed to the shank above the weight, for the workman to direct the stroke. The MONKEY is a machine for setting the arms, &c. It consists of a weight of about 200 lb. sometimes faced with steel, and a long iron shank suspended by an iron chain to a crane, hanging horizontally against the side of the work, and it is used by being drawn back and thrust forward by the workmen. KEDGES, or small anchors, are made in proportion to the large anchors; their stocks were formerly of iron but are now mostly of wood. If iron, they are to be the same in length as if wood, and two thirds of the trend in diameter in the middle. Near the middle of the stock is a shoulder that bears against the hole on one side the square of the shank, with a forelock-hole in the stock, on the other side the square of the shank, for a forelock to go through, to confine the stock in its place: it is tapered from the middle each way, and, when put through the shank, one end is bent, to prevent its falling out, and to keep it close, when brought to the side of the shank, for less stowage. GRAPNEL, or GRAPPLING, is like a small anchor, with four or five flukes, or claws, used in small vessels or boats to ride at. FIRE-GRAPNELS resemble the former, are from eighteen to twenty pounds weight, and have strong barbed claws, with a chain to the ring. They are used by fire-ships. CREEPER is like a small anchor, with four hooks, or claws, used in recovering any thing from the bottom of rivers, &c. SHEER HOOKS are of iron, with two prongs, like a fork, and four hooks at the other end, used at the extremities of the yards of fire-ships to entangle the enemy’s rigging, &c. |
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SAIL-MAKING. |
The Practice of Sail making, with the tools
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DESCRIPTION AND USE OF SAILS.
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the following description of the properties of sails, the explanation of the terms, and method of cutting out and making them, is farther elucidated by an accurate engraving of each sail prefixed to the instructions, and it is presumed it will be found replete. with much useful information. ———
SAILS are made of canvas, of different textures, and are extended on or between the masts, to receive the wind and force the vessel through the water. They are quadrilateral or triangular; and are skirted round with bolt-ropes, as hereafter described. Quadrilateral sails are extended by yards, as the principal sails; by yards and booms, as studding-sails; a gaff, as mizen courses; or by a boom and gaff, as drivers, or boom-mainsails, of brigs, sloops, &c. Triangular sails are spread by a stay, as staysails; or by a mast, and sometimes by a yard, acting as a kind of gaff, as lateen or shoulder-of-mutton-sails: the foremost leech, or edge, is attached to the yard, mast, or stay, the whole length. The sails of a ship or vessel of 3 masts are, the courses or lower sails; driver; topsails, next above the courses; topgallant sails, next above the topsails; and the royals above them: beyond the leeches of the main and fore courses, topsails, and topgallant sails, are set the studdingsails; and between the masts, upon the stays, are the staysails. The courses are the mainsail, foresail, mizen, and spritsail; which are, except the mizen, fixed on their respective yards at right angles with the ship’s length; the mizen is bent to a yard or gaff parallel with the ship’s length. The sails of a vessel of two masts are, in a snow, similar to those on the fore and main masts of a ship, except the sail called a trysail, used instead of a mizen, which it resembles; it is extended towards the stern, and is fastened by hoops round a small mast, called a trysail mast, fixed near the aft-side of the main-mast in a block of wood in the quarter deck, at the foot, and attached to the main top at the head. The sails of a brig with 2 masts are also similar to those on the main and fore masts of a ship, excepting the main sail, which is set in the plane of her keel, and is extended by a gaff at the head and a boom at the foot; the foremost leech being fastened by hoops round the main-mast. Vessels with one mast, as sloops, cutters, smacks, hoys, &c. have a main-sail abaft the mast, as the brigs; before the mast they have a square sail, or cross-jack; and, above the cross-jack, a small sail, called a save-all topsail; above that is a topsail, called a swallow-tailed topsail, and the next is the topgallant sail. Some large sloops have a royal above the topgallant-sail, and studdingsails beyond the leeches of the square-sail. Before the mast is a foresail, a jib, and a flying jib. Abaft the after leech of the main-sail, in calm weather, is hoisted a ring-tail-sail; over the head of the main-sail a gaff topsail; and over the stern under the boom a water-sail. |
BOATS. Some have a main-sail, foresail, and jib, as in sloops; others have spritsails. Some have spritsails, and lateen or settee sails, according to their various uses, the fancy of the owners, or the country to which they belong. There is an additional part of a sail, called a bonnet: it is laced at the bottom, or foot, of the foresail, and storm main-sails, of some vessels with one mast, in moderate winds. It is made like the foot of the sail it is intended for, and has latchings in the upper part, to correspond with and go through holes in the foot of the sail by which it is fastened. In quadrilateral sails, the upper edge is called the head; the sides, or skirts, are called leeches and the lower edge is named the foot. If the head is parallel with the foot, the two lower corners are called clues, and the upper corners earings. In triangular sails, and in quadrilateral ones, where the head is not parallel to the foot, the foremost corner at the foot is called the tack; the after lower corner, the clue; the upper inner corner, the nock; and the upper outer corner, the peek; the foremost perpendicular, or goring edge, the fore leech; and the hindmost, the after leech. The heads of quadrilateral sails, and the fore leeches or head of triangular sails, are attached to their yards, or gaffs, by a number of small cords, called rope-bands, or by a line, called the lacing. The heads of quadrilateral sails, when not parallel to the foot, lace to the yard or gaff by a line, reeved spirally through each hole in the head, and round the yard or gaff. The nock and peek are lashed by the earings. The fore leech of mizen courses, drivers, and fore and aft main-sails, lace to the mast by a line, reeved through the holes in the leech, backwards and forwards, on the foreside of the mast, or to hoops round the mast. Staysails are extended upon the stays, between the masts, with hanks, or grommets, and are drawn up and down as a curtain slides upon its rod; their lower parts are stretched out by a tack and sheet. The lower corners of main-sails and foresails of ships are extended by a tack and a sheet: the foremost lower corners of fore and aft sails by a tack, and the after lower corners by a sheet. The clues of a topsail are drawn out to the extremities of the lower yard by two large ropes, called the topsail sheets; the clues of the topgallant-sails are extended upon the topsail yard-arms by the topgallant sheets; and the clues of the royal-sails are lashed to the topgallant yard-arms. Studdingsails are set beyond the skirts or leeches of the main-sail, foresail, topsail, and topgallant-sail, of ships, snows, and brigs. Their upper edges, or heads, are extended by yards; their lower ones, by booms run out beyond the extremities of the yards. These sails are set in favourable winds and moderate weather, or in chacing. All sails derive their names from the mast, yard, boom, or stay, to or upon which they are extended or attached: thus, the principal sail, extended upon the main-mast, is called the main-sail or main course; that upon the main-topmast is termed the main-topsail; that upon the main-topgallant mast is named the main-topgallant sail; and the main-topgallant royal is so called from its being spread across the upper part of the main-topgallant mast. The foresail or fore course is so denominated from the foremast; the fore-topsail from the fore-topmast; the fore-topgallant sail from the foretopgallant-mast; and the fore-topgallant royal from being spread on the upper part of the fore-topgallant mast: the mizen course and driver boom sail from the mizen mast; the mizen topsail from the mizen topmast; the mizen topgallant sail from the mizen topgallant mast; and the mizen topgallant royal from its being spread on the upper part of the mizen-topgallant mast. The main staysail |
from the main-staysail-stay; the main-topmast staysail from the main-topmast preventer stay; middle staysail from the middle staysail-stay; and the main-topgallant staysail from the main-topgallant staysail-stay. These staysails are between the main and foremasts. The staysails between the main and mizen masts are, the mizen staysail, the mizen topmast and sometimes a mizen topgallant sail above the latter. The staysails, between the foremast and the bowsprit, are the fore staysail, the fore topmast staysail, and jib; (East India ships have two jibs;) there are, besides, two square sails extended by yards under the bowsprit and jib-boom; that under the bowsprit is the spritsail or course, and that under the jib-boom the sprit topsail. The studdingsails, being extended beyond the different yards of the main and foremasts, are like-wise named, according to their stations, the lower studding-sail, the topmast studding-sail, and the topgallant studdingsail. The ropes, by which the lower yards and sails are hoisted to their proper heights on the mast, are called the jears. The ropes employed for this purpose to all other sails are called haliards. The principal sails are expanded by haliards, sheets, and bowlines; and the courses are always stretched out below by a tack and sheet: they are drawn or trussed up together by buntlines, clue-lines, leech-lines, reef-tackles, slab-lines, spilling-lines, and brails. The courses, topsails, and topgallant-sails, are wheeled about the mast, to suit the various directions of the wind, by braces: the higher studding-sails, and, in general, all the stay and boom sails, are drawn down to be furled or reefed by down-haulers. The sails of fishing-vessels are generally tanned: lightermen, &c. use the following composition to colour and preserve their sails, viz. horse grease and tar, mixed to a proper consistance, and coloured with red or yellow ochre, with which, when heated, the sails are payed over. The following method is also much approved, viz. the sail, being spread on the grass, is made thoroughly wet with sea-water, and then payed over, on both sides, with brown or red ochre mixed with sea-water to the consistence of cream, it is then well rubbed over, on both sides, with linseed oil. The sail may be used within 24 hours after being oiled. The tanning of sails in the royal navy has been tried, but is not approved of. |
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EXPLANATION OF THE TECHNICAL TERMS RELATIVE TO SAILS,
AND DESCRIPTION OF THE TOOLS USED IN SAIL-MAKING. BAG-REEF. A fourth or lower reef, sometimes used in the royal navy. BALANCE-REEF. A reef-band that crosses a sail diagonally, and is used to contract it in a storm. BANDS. Pieces of canvas, from one sixth to a whole breadth, strongly sewed across the sail to strengthen it. BOLT-ROPE. The rope sewed on the edges of sails to prevent their rending. The bolt-rope on the perpendicular or sloping edges is called the leech-rope; that at the bottom, the foot-rope; and that on the top of the sail, the head-rope. BONNET. An additional part of a sail, made to fasten with latchings to the foot of the sails of some vessels with one mast, in moderate winds. It is exactly similar to the foot of the sail it is intended for. BOWLINE. A rope fastened by the bridles to the bowline cringles, on the leech of topsails and other square sails, to keep tight the windward or weather leech of the sail. BRAILS. Ropes to draw up the foot, lower corner, and the skirts, of mizen-courses, and other large fore and aft sails for furling. BRIDLES of the bowline. Short ropes, or legs, fastened to the bowline cringles on the leeches of sails. BUNT. The middle-part of the foot of square sails, and the foremost leech of staysails cut with a nock. BUNTLINE. A rope fastened to the buntline cringles, on the foot of square sails, to draw them up to their yards. BUNTLINE CLOTH. The lining sewed up the sail, in the direction of the buntline, to prevent the sail being chafed. CANVAS. For the royal navy, canvas or sail-cloth is 24 inches wide; and 38 Yards are called a bolt. To distinguish the different qualities, each bolt is numbered, and should weigh as follows; No. 1, 44 lb. No. 2, 41; No. 3, 38; No. 4, 35; No. 5, 32; No. 6, 29; No. 7, 24; and, No. 8, 21 pounds: from No. 1 to 6 is termed double, and above No. 6 single, canvas. CLUE. The lower corner of a sail, where the clue-rope is spliced, and the sheet fastened. CLUE-ROPE. A short rope, larger than the bolt-rope on the sail, into which it is spliced, at the lower corners of square sails, and the after corners of staysails and boomsails. It is there formed into a loop, to which the sheets are fastened. COURSES. The mainsail, foresail, spritsail, and mizen of ships. CRINGLES. Small holes formed on the bolt-ropes of sails by intertwisting the strand of a rope alternately round itself and through the strands of the bolt-rope, till it assume the shape of a ring. To the cringles the end of a rope is fastened, to haul the sail up to the yard, &c. |
DRABLER. An additional part of a sail, laced to the bottom of the bonnet of a square-sail, in Dutch sloops, &c. DROP of a sail. A term sometimes used to courses and topsails instead of depth. EARINGS. Small ropes used to extend the upper corners of sails to their yards, or gaffs. FID. A round tapering pin, made of hard wood, to thrust between the strands of a rope and make a hole to admit the strand of another rope, in splicing. GASKET, A plaited cord used to fasten the folded parts of a sail to the yard, when furling or reefing. GORES. Angles cut slopewise at one or both ends of such cloths as widen or increase the depth of a sail. GROMMET. A small wreath made by splicing together the ends of a short piece of rope or line. HALIARDS. The ropes or tackle employed to hoist the yards or sails. HANKS. A sort of wooden rings, formed by the bending of a piece of tough wood, which are confined to the stays by notches cut in the ends. HEADSTICK. A short round stick with a hole in each end, strongly sewed to the head of some triangular foresails and jibs, to prevent the head of the sail from twisting; the head-rope is thrust through the holes before it it sewed on the sail. HEAVING-MALLET. A mallet with a small cylindrical head, used as a lever to strain tight the cross stitches and beat them close, when sewing on the bolt-rope. HOIST. The foremost leeches of staysails and mast-leech of booms sails. HOLES in sails are made with an instrument, called a stabber or a pegging-awl, and are fenced round by stitching the edge to a small grommet; such are the holes on the head of a sail for the rope-bands or laceing of square sails, and for seizings on sails that bend to hoops and hanks. Holes are likewise made across the sail in the reef-bands; at the clues, for marling on the clue-rope; and at the top brims of topsails, for marling on the foot-rope. Holes, when finished, should be stretched up with a pricker or marline-spike. HOUSE-LINE. Small line, of 3 threads, used to marl the clue-rope at the clues, and to seize the corners of sails. LACEING. The rope or line used to confine the heads of sails to their yards or gaffs. LASHING. A short rope used to confine one object to another, by several turns round it and securing the end. LATCHINGS. Loops formed on the line that is sewed to the head of a bonnet to connect it with the foot of a sail: these loops are 6 inches asunder and 6 inches long, except the two middle ones, which are 12 inches long, to fasten off with. The loops are alternately reeved through holes in the foot of the sail and through each other, and fasten by the two long loops in the middle with two half-hitches, by loosing of which they unreeve themselves. LATEEN-SAIL. A triangular sail, bent at the foremost leech to a yard that hoists obliquely to the mast, and is connected with it, at one third the length of the yard. LEECHES, or skirts. The perpendicular or sloping edges of sails. LININGS. The canvas sewed on the leeches and middle of a sail to strengthen it. MARLING. Securing clue-ropes to the clues of sails, by passing a line round the rope and through each marling-hole with a hitch knot. |
MARLING-SPIKE. A tapered iron pin, fixed in a short wooden handle, bent towards the point. It is used to open the strands of a rope for splicing, and to strain tight the seizing of clues, &c. MAST-CLOTH. The lining in the middle on the aft side of topsails, to prevent the sail being chafed by the mast. NEEDLES have three sides towards the point, and are of various sizes. They bear the following names, viz. large marline, small marline, double bolt-rope, large bolt-rope, small bolt-rope, store, old work, tabling, and flat-seam, needles- The needles should be no larger than is necessary to carry the twine, and the edges should be taken off, that the canvas may not be cut. NOCK. The foremost upper corner of boomsails, and of staysails cut with a square tack. PALM. A flat round piece of iron, used instead of a thimble, and chequered in the middle, to hinder the head of the needle from slipping. It is sewed on a piece of leather or canvas, having a hole for the thumb to go through, which encircles the hand so that the iron, when used, is against the palm. PARCELLING is encircling a rope, after it is wormed, with narrow pieces of old canvas, well tarred, to make a fair surface for the serving. PEEK. The upper corner of triangular sails, and upper outer corner of fore and aft sails. PEGGING-AWL. An instrument for making holes with. It has 4 sharp edges towards the point, and is smaller than a stabber. POINTS. Short pieces of flat plaited cordage, tapering from the middle to the ends, used to reef the square sails. PRICKER. A small instrument, like a marline-spike, but straight, to make the holes with. REEF. The portion of sail contained between the reef-bands and nearest edge of the sail, at head or foot. REEF-BANDS. The bands in which the reef-holes are made, when sewed across the sail. REEF-HANKS. Short pieces of log-line, or other small line, sewed at certain distances on the reefs of boom-sails. REEF-TACKLE PENDANT. A rope employed to hoist the reef of a topsail to the yard, to reef the sail. REELS FOR TWINE are short cylindrical pieces of wood, having the sides hollowed and a hole bored through the middle. A Bench-reel is similar to a spinning-wheel, and is used to expedite winding the twine from the skains to the twine-reel. A Yarn-reel is a circular board, nailed in the middle to a piece of oak, 4 inches square and 16 inches long, and is used to wind spunyarn on; through the centre is bored a hole by which it turns round a bolt, as on an axis. RING-TAIL-SAIL. A small sail, extended, by a small mast and a boom, over the stern. A boat’s main-sail is generally made to answer both purposes. ROACH-LEECH. A term signifying the curve on the mast-leech of some fore and aft sails, &c. ROPE-BANDS. Short pieces of plaited cordage, used to fasten the head of a sail to its yard. RUBBER. A small iron instrument, in a wooden handle, to rub down or flatten the seams. SAIL-HOOK. A small iron hook, with an eye in one end, to which a cord is spliced: it is used to confine the work, while sewing, by hooking on the canvas, the cord being fastened to some convenient place. SEAMS. The two edges of canvas where laid over each other other and sewed down. SEIZING. Joining one part of a rope to another with several round and cross-turns of small cord or line. |
SELVAGE. The edges of cloth as finished in weaving. SERVING is winding small line or spunyarn tightly round a rope by a mallet, to preserve it from wet, &c. The line or spunyarn being wound up in a ball, two or more turns are taken from it round the rope, confining the end under the turns; the mallet is then placed on the rope, and 2 or more yarns are passed round the rope and mallet, and round the handle, then, turning the mallet (whilst another person passes the ball round the rope,) it leaves the spunyarn on the rope, and draws it tight. SERVING-MALLET. A wooden instrument, composed of a short cylindrical head, with a handle through its centre. Along the upper surface of the head is cut a circular groove, to fit the convexity of the rope. SERVING-BOARD A small piece of board, 7 or 8 inches long and 3 inches broad, tapering to one end as a handle. It has a small notch or groove cut in the middle of the broad end, and one or two on the sides, in which the spunyarn is twisted. Its use is the same as the mallet, but for small rope only. SHEET. A rope to spread the foot of a sail, attached to the clues of square sails, and the after clue of other sails, except studdingsails: on them it is fastened to the inner clue. SHOULDER-OF-MUTTON-SAIL is triangular, similar to the lateen sail, but is attached to a mast instead of a yard. SLACK-CLOTH. A certain quantity of cloth, allowed to be gradually gathered up, in sewing on the bolt-rope to the sail, more than the length of bolt-rope; otherwise the rope, by stretching in the wearing, might occasion the sail to split. SLIDING-GUNTER-SAIL. A triangular sail, used in boats, bent at its foremost leech to hoops or grommets that slide on the lower mast: the peek or head is attached to a small topmast, that slides up, in the direction of the lower-mast, through two hoops fixed, at its head, about three feet asunder. When the topmast is lowered, the sail furls close up to the lower mast. SPLICE. Two ends of a rope joined neatly together, by opening the strands and placing them equally in each other, and thrusting the ends through the intervals of the opposite strands alternately, the opening being previously made with a fid or marline-spike. SPUNYARN. Three or four yarns of half-worn rope, tarred and twisted together by a winch or whirls. STABBER. An instrument similar to a pricker, only being triangular instead of square. STAY. A large rope employed to sustain the mast, by extending from its upper part towards the fore part of the ship, where it is securely fastened. STAY-HOLES. Holes made through staysails, at certain distances along the hoist, through which they are seized to the hanks on the stay. STUCK. The term used for being stitched. TABLING. A broad hem made on the skirts of sails, by turning the edge over and sewing it down. It is to strengthen the sail for sewing on the bolt-rope. TABLED. The edges turned over and sewed down. TACK. A rope used to confine the clues of the mainsail and foresail forward occasionally in a fixed position, and also to confine the foremost lower corners of staysails, boomsails, and foresails of hoops; and the outer lower corners of studdingsails. TACK OF A SAIL. That place to which the tack is fastened. |
THIMBLE. An iron ring, having a groove formed in its outer circumference. Thimbles are fixed in the cringles of sails where iron hooks are used, as the hook of a tackle, &c. THUMB-STALL. A ferrule, made of iron, horn, or leather, with the edges turned up, to receive the thread in sewing. It is worn on the thumb to tighten the stitches. TOP-BRIM. A space in the middle of the foot of a topsail, containing one-fifth of the number of its cloths. It is so called from its situation, being near the fore part of the top, or plat-form on the mast, when the sail is extended. TOP-LINING. The lining sewed to the aftside of topsails, to preserve the sail from the chafing of the top. TWINE is of two sorts, extra and ordinary; the extra is for seaming, and runs 360 fathoms to the pound; the ordinary is used to sew on the bolt-rope, and runs 200 fathoms to the pound. Twine for the navy is of three threads. WINCH, to make or twist spunyarn with, is made of 8 spokes, 4 at each end, and 4 wooden pins 15 inches long driven through the end of them. Through the centre of the spokes is bored a hole for an iron bolt to pass through, that serves for an axis. The motion is given to the winch by the hand; on the edges of the spokes is a small hook to stop the yarn when twisting, after which the spunyarn is wound round the body of the winch. WHIRLS. Short wires with a hook at one end, going through a hole in a cylindrical piece of wood; the wood in which they turn is hollowed on the outside to receive a strap of canvas or leather three of these whirls are retained by notches cut on the edge of a semi-circular rib of wood hollowed on the back, 3 inches square, and 10 inches long, fastened against an upright fixed by a tenon into a large block of wood: a spoke wheel, about 3 feet diameter, turns on a large pin, or axis, driven into the middle of the upright; and round this wheel and the woods of the whirls passes a tight canvas or leather strap; so that turning the spoke-wheel puts the whirls in motion, and the yarns, being hung to the hooks, are twisted together. WORMING is winding small lines or spunyarn along the cuntline of a rope, to produce a fair surface for serving. |
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GENERAL RULES AND DIRECTIONS FOR SAIL-MAKING.
instructions for cutting out sails.
SAILS are cut out cloth by cloth. The width is governed by the length of the yard, gaff, boom, or stay; the depth by the heighth of the mast. The width and depth being given, find the number of cloths the width requires, allowing for seams, tabling on the leeches, and slack cloth; and, in the depth, allow for tabling on the head and foot. For sails cut square on the head and foot, with gores only on the leeches, as some topsails, &c. the cloths on the head, between the leeches, are cut square to the depth; and the gores on the leeches are found by dividing the depth of the sail by the number of cloths gored, which gives the length of each gore. The gore is set down from a square with the opposite selvage, and, the canvas being cut diagonally, the longest gored side of one cloth makes the shortest side of the next; consequently, the first gore being known, the rest are cut by it.
For the length of gores corresponding to the depth on the selvage, see the Table of Gores annexed to these directions. In the leeches of topsails cut hollow, the upper gores are longer than the lower ones; and, in sails cut with a roach leech, the lower gores are longer than the upper ones. This must be regulated by judgment, and care taken that the whole of the gores do not exceed the depth of the leech. Or, by drawing on paper the gored side of the sail, and delineating the breadth of every cloth by a convenient scale of equal parts of an inch to a foot, the length of every gore may be found with precision. In the subjoined plates of sails, the gore is marked on every cloth. Sails, gored with a sweep on the head or the foot, or on both, have the depth of their gores marked on the selvage, from the square of the given depth on each cloth, and are cut as above; the longest selvage of one serving to measure the shortest selvage of the next, beginning with the first gored cloth next the middle, in some sails, and the first cloth next the mast leech, in others. For those gores that are irregular no strict rule can be given; they can only be determined by the judgment of the sail-maker, or by a drawing. In the royal navy, mizen topsails are cut with three quarters of a yard hollow in the foot; but, in the merchant-service, top and topgallant sails are cut with more or less hollow in the foot. Flying jibs are cut with a roach-curve on the stay, and a three-inch gore in each cloth, shortening from the tack to the clue. Lower studding-sails are cut with square leeches, and topmast and topgallant-mast studdingsails with goring leeches. For the cutting of all other sails, we refer to the particular description of each sail, and to the annexed Tables of Dimensions. The length of reef and middle bands is governed by the width of the sail at their respective places; the leech-linings, buntline-cloths, top-linings, mast-cloths, and corner-pieces, are cut agreeably to the depth of the sail; each cloth and every article should be properly marked with charcoal, to prevent confusion or mistake. |
Sails that have bonnets are cut out the whole depth of the sail and bonnet included, allowing enough for the tablings on the foot of the sail and head and foot of the bonnet. The bonnet is cut off after the sail is sewed together. If a drabler is required, it is allowed for in the cutting out the same as the bonnet. instructions for sail-making.
SEAMS. Sails have a double flat seam, and should be sewed with the best English-made twine of three threads, spun 360 fathoms to the pound, and have from one hundred and eight to one hundred and sixteen stitches in every yard in length.
The twine for large sails, in the royal navy, is waxed by hand, with genuine bees-wax, mixed with one sixth part of clear turpentine; and, for small sails, in a mixture made with bees wax, 4 1b; hogs lard, 5 lb; and clear turpentine, 1 lb. In the merchant-service, the twine is dipped in tar, softened with a proper proportion of oil. It is the erroneous practice of some sail-makers not to sew the seams any farther than where the edge is creased down for the tabling; but all sails should be sewed quite home to the end, and, when finished, should be well rubbed down with a rubber. In the merchant-service, seams are sometimes made broader at the foot than at the head, being stronger. Broad seams are not allowed to be made on courses, in the royal navy, but goring leeches are adopted in lieu of them. Boom-mainsails and the sails of sloops generally have the seams broader at the foot than at the head. The seams of courses and topsails are stuck or hitched up, in the middle of the seams, along the whole length, with double seaming-twine; and have from 68 to 72 stitches in a yard. In the merchant-service, it is common to stick the seams with two rows of stitches, when the sail is half worn, as they will then last till the sail is worn out. The breadth of the seams of courses, topsails, and other sails, in the royal navy, to be as follow, viz. courses and topsails, for 50 gun ships and upwards, one inch and a half, and, for 44 gun ships and under, one inch and a quarter, at head and foot: all other sails, one inch at head and foot. TABLINGS. The tablings of all sails are to be of a proportionable breadth to the size of the sail, and sewed at the edge, with 68 to 72 stitches in a yard. Those for the heads of main and fore courses to be four to six inches wide; for sprit courses and mizens, drivers, and other boom-sails, 3 to 4 inches wide; for topsails, 3 inches to 4 inches and a half; topgallant and sprit topsails, 3 inches; royal sails, 2 inches and a half; jib and other staysails, 3 inches to 4 inches and a half, on the stay or hoist; and, for studding-sails, 3 inches to 4 inches on the head. Tablings on the foot and leeches of main and fore courses to be 3 inches to 5 inches broad; sprit course and topsails, 3 inches; topgallant and sprit topsails, 2 inches and a half; royals, 2 inches: fore leeches of mizen, driver, and other boomsails, 3 inches and a half to 4 inches; after leech, 3 inches; and on the foot 2 or 3 inches. Tablings on the after leech of jibs and other staysails to be from 2 to 3 inches broad; and, on the foot, 2 to 2 inches and a half: on studding-sail leeches one inch and a half to two inches and a half; and, on the foot, from one to two inches. LININGS. Main and fore courses are lined on the leeches, from clue to earing, with one cloth, seamed on, and stuck, or stitched, in the middle; and have a middle-band half-way between the lower reef-band and the foot; also four buntline-cloths, at equal distances between the leeches, the upper-end of which |
are carried under the middle-band, that the lower side of the band may be tabled upon, or sewed over, the end of the buntline-pieces. They have likewise two reef-bands; each, in breadth, one third of the breadth of the canvas; the upper one is one sixth of the depth of the sail from the head, and the lower band is at the same distance from the upper one; the ends go four inches under the leech linings, which are seamed over the reef-bands. All linings are seamed on, and are stuck, with 68 to 72 stitches in a yard. Main, fore, and mizen, topsails have leech linings, mast and top linings, buntline-cloths, middle bands and reef bands. The leech linings are made of one breadth of cloth, so cut and sewed as to be half a cloth broad at the head, and a cloth and a half broad at the foot; the piece cut out being half the breadth of the cloth at one end, and tapering to a point at the other. The middle-bands are put on half-way between the lower reef and foot; the buntline-cloths join the top-linings; and the buntline-cloths and top-linings are carried up to the lower side of the middle band, which is tabled on them. The mast-lining is of two cloths, and extends from the foot of the sail to the lower reef, to receive the beat or chafe of the mast. The middle-band is made of one breadth of canvas, of the same number as the toplining. It is first folded and rubbed down, to make a crease at one third of the breadth; then tabled on the selvage, and stuck along the crease; then turned down, and tabled and stuck through both the double and single parts, with 68 to 72 stitches in a yard. It is the opinion of many, that middle-bands should not be put on until the sail is half worn. Main and fore topsails have three and sometimes four reef-bands from leech to leech, over the leech linings; the upper one is one eighth of the depth of the sail from the head, and they are the same distance asunder, in the royal navy, but more in the merchant-service. The reef-bands are each of half a breadth of canvas, put on double; the first side is stuck twice, and the fast turned over so that the reef-holes may be worked upon the double part of the band, which is also stuck with 68 to 72 stitches in a yard. The toplining of topsails is of canvas, No. 6 or 7. The other linings of this, and all the linings of other sails, should be of the same quality as the sails to which they belong. Top-linings and mast-cloths are put on the aftside, and all other linings on the fore-side, of sails. Mizens are lined with one breadth of cloth from the clue five yards up the leech, and have a reef-band sewed on, in the same manner as on other sails, at one fifth the depth of the sail from the foot; they have also a nock-piece and a peek-piece, one cut out of the other so that each contains one yard. Mizen topsails, of 50 gun ships and upwards, have three reefs, the upper one is one eighth of the depth of the sail from the head, and the reefs are at the same distance asunder. Mizen topsails, of ships of 44 guns and under, have two reefs one seventh part of the depth of the sail asunder, the upper one being at the same distance from the head. Main and main top studding-sails have each one reef, at one eighth of the depth of the sail from the head. Reef-bands should not be put on until the sail is sewed up, a contrary practice being very erroneous. Lower staysails, fore top and main top staysails, and flying jibs, have clue-pieces two yards long. Square tack-staysails have half a breadth of cloth at the fore part, with a clue-piece containing two yards, and a peek-piece, containing one yard. HOLES are made by an instrument called a pegging awl, or a stabber, and are fenced round by stitching the edge to a small grommet, made with log or other line; when finished, they should be well stretched or rounded up by a pricker or a marline-spike. |
Sails have two holes in each cloth, at the heads and reefs of courses, topsails, and other square sails; one hole in every yard in the stay of flying jibs; and one in every three quarters of a yard in the stays of square tack and other staysails. Reef and head holes of large sails have grommets of 12-thread line, worked round with 18 to 21 stitches; smaller sails have grommets of 9-thread line, with 16 to 18 stitches, or as many as shall cover the line, and smaller holes in proportion. The holes, for marling the clues of sails and the top-brims of topsails, have grommets of log-line, and should have from 9 to 11 stitches; twelve holes are worked in each cloth. Main courses have marling-holes from the clue to the lower bow-line cringle up the leech; and from the clue to the first buntline-cringle on the foot. Fore-courses have marling-holes one-eighth of the depth of the sail up the leech, and from the clue to the first buntline cringle at the foot. Main and fore topsails have marling-holes three feet each way from the clue, and at the top-brims. Spritsails, mizen topsails, lower staysails, main and fore top staysails, and jibs, have marling-holes two feet each way from the clues. All other sails are sewed home to the clues. Marling-holes of courses are at three fourths of the depth of the tablings at the clues from the rope; and those of topsails are at half the depth of the tablings at the clues, and top-brim, from the rope. BOLT ROPE should be well made, of fine yarn, spun from the best Riga rhine hemp well topt, and sewed on with good English-made twine of three threads, spun 200 fathom to the pound; the twine in the royal navy is dipped in a composition made with bees-wax, 4 lb; hogs lard, 5 lb; and clear turpentine one pound; and, in the merchant-service, in tar softened with oil.
Bolt-ropes of courses, topsails, and all other sails, should be neatly sewed on through every cuntline of the rope; and, to avoid stretching, the rope must be kept tightly twisted while sewing on, and care taken that neither too much nor too little slack is taken in: they are to be cross stitched at the leeches, every 12 inches in length; at every seam, and in the middle of every cloth at the foot, with three cross-stitches: four cross-stitches should be taken at all beginnings and fastenings off; the first stitch given twice, and the last three times. Small sails have two cross-stitches at every seam, and three at every fastening off. Annexed is a table of the sixes of bolt-ropes for every sail. On main and fore courses two inches slack cloth should be allowed in the head and foot, and one inch and a half in the leeches, in every yard in length. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Topsails are allowed 3 inches slack in every cloth in the foot, and one inch and a half in every yard in the leech, and 2 inches in every cloth left open in the top-brim. Mizen courses have two inches slack in every yard in the foremost leech, but none in the after leech or foot. Spritsail courses have no slack cloth. Jibs have four inches slack in every yard in the stay, one inch in every cloth in the foot, and none in the leech. Staysails have 3 inches slack in every yard in the stay, one inch in every cloth in the foot, but none in the leech. Topgallant-sails have two inches slack in every cloth in the foot, and one inch in every yard in the leech. Studding-sails have an inch and a half slack in every yard in goring leeches, but no slack in square leeches, and one inch in every cloth in the head and foot. Bolt-ropes should be stoved in a stove by the heat of a flue, and not in a baker’s oven or a stovetub; and tarred in the best Stockholm tar. The flexibility of them should be always considered, in taking in the slack, which must rest on the judgment of the sail-maker. The clues and top-brims should be wormed while the bolt-rope is sewing to the sail, and before both parts are confined. Fourteen turns or twists of the strands in the length of the clue rope are left at the lower corners of all sails for the clues, which are wormed with sizeable spunyarn, served, marled, and seized. The clue-ropes of main courses extend, and are marled, from the clue to the lower bowline-cringle up the leech, and to the first buntline-cringle on the foot; on fore-courses one-eighth of the depth of the sail up the leech and to the first buntline-cringle at the foot: the clue-ropes of main and fore top-sails extend 3 feet each way on the leech and foot: and spritsails, mizen topsails, lower staysails, main and fore top staysails, and jibs, have the clue-rope 2 feet each way from the clue. Earing-cringles are made of an additional length (of 14 twists or turns) of the leech-rope left at the head of the sail, which, being turned back, forms the cringle by splicing its end into the leech-rope and cross-stitching the whole of the splice; the first stitch to be given twice, and the last stitch 3 times. Cringles should be made of the strands of new bolt-rope, half an inch smaller than the bolt-rope on the sail. Splices are made by opening the ends of two ropes, and placing the strands between each other; openings being made in the untwisted part of the rope nearest the end with a marline spike, the strands are thrust through them; and the large ends are regularly tapered from the middle by cutting away some of the yarns every time they are thrust through. The small strands, as those of the foot or leech rope, are stuck twice through the openings made in the large rope; and the large strands are stuck 3 times through the leech or foot rope. The middle strand of the taper, being the longest, is stuck in last, and once more than the others. All splices are cross-stitched as far as they run. Reef and reef-tackle pendant cringles are stuck through holes made in the tablings, and the lower ends are put through the bolt-rope once more than the upper ends, being more liable to be drawn out. The openings of bowline and buntline cringles are at the distance of four turns or twists of the strands in the bolt-rope asunder, and the ends are first stuck in an opening, made with a marline spike, under two strands of the bolt-rope; then, passing over the next, they are stuck under one strand; and again |
passing over another, they are finally stuck under the next. The ends of the buntline cringles, next the service of the clues of courses, should be left long enough to be worked under the service, to meet or reach the ends of the clue rope. (See plate.) bonnets.
Bonnets have a head-tabling, to which a line that forms the latchings is sewed in bights, which are about 6 inches asunder; the leeches and foot are tabled, &c. similar to the foot of the sail the bonnet is intended for.
RULES FOR ASCERTAINING THE QUANTITY OF CANVAS,
TWENTY-FOUR INCHES WIDE, CONTAINED IN THE DIFFERENT SAILS. main and fore courses, topsails, topgallant-sails, and royals.
Add the number of cloths in the head and foot together, and halve them, to make them square; then multiply the number of squared cloths by the depth of the sail, and add to that the additional canvas contained in the foot-gores, linings, bands, and pieces.
mizen course.
Add the depth of the fore and after leech together, and halve it for a medium depth; then multiply the number of cloths by the same; and add to that the additional canvas contained in the foot-gores, linings, bands, and pieces.
main staysails, fore staysails, jibs, foresails, and lateen sails.
Halve the number of cloths, and multiply them by the depth of the leech; and add to that the additional canvas contained in the foot-gores, linings, bands, and pieces.
mizen staysails, main-topmast-staysails, middle staysails, mizen-topmast-staysails, and main-topgallant-staysails.
Add the depth of the tack to the depth of the after leech, and halve them for a medium depth: add the number of cloths in the head and foot together, and halve them, to reduce them square; then multiply the number of squared cloths by the medium depth; and add to that the additional canvas contained in the foot-gores, linings, bands, and pieces.
lower studding-sails, sprit-courses, cross-jack, and other square-sails.
Multiply the number of cloths by the depth of the sail, and add the additional canvas contained in the foot-gores, linings, bands, and pieces.
driver sails, boomsails, settee, lug, and spritsails, gaff-topsails, and ring-tail-sails.
Add the depth of the fore and after leech together, and halve them for a medium depth; add the cloths in the head and foot of the sail together, and halve them to reduce them square. Then multiply the number of squared cloths by the medium depth, and add the additional canvas contained in the foot-gores, linings, bands, and pieces.
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RULES FOR FINDING THE QUANTITY OF CANVAS IN
THE DIFFERENT GORES. hollow foot-gores of main and fore courses, &c.
Add the several gores together, and multiply by half the number of cloths that are gored, then divide by 36, the number of inches in a yard.
foot-gores of mizen-courses.
The number of cloths in the sail must be multiplied by the additional length that the square cloth in the middle is more than those at the tack and clue; then, the gores to the tack and clue being subtracted, the remainder is the answer. gores of triangular sails, staysails, &c.
The depth of the gores on the stay of triangular sails is found by dividing the depth of the leech by the number of cloths. The gores of quadrilateral staysails, or those with a bunt, are found by subtracting the depth of the bunt from the depth of the leech, and dividing the remainder by the number of cloths in the sail. foot-gores of drivers and other boomsails.
The gores from where they begin to the mast-leech must be added together, and multiplied by half the number of cloths in the foot; then, the clue-gores being subtracted, the remainder is the answer, as nearly as can be found by any rule in use. |
IN describing each sail separately, the necessity of many repetitions is obviated by the reader’s referring to the preceding general instructions for the different operations; and, though the engravings of the sails are in general for a twenty gunship, they will, with the directions, be found to answer for all classes of ships in the Royal-Navy and Merchant service. MAIN-COURSE.
This sail is quadrilateral, square on the head, and made of canvas No. 1 or 2. It bends at the head to the main-yard, which hangs to the mast at right-angles with the ship’s length, and parallel to the deck. This sail extends within 18 inches of the cleats on the yard-arms, and drops to clear the foot from the boat upon the booms.
One cloth is gored on each leech; and the gore on the foot is of one inch per cloth, beginning at two cloths within the nearest buntline cringle, and increasing to the clues. Sometimes, in the merchant-service, two cloths are gored on the leeches, and the gore on the foot is 2 inches per cloth. This sail has two reef-bands, of one-third the breadth of a cloth: the upper reef-band is at one- sixth of the depth of the sail from the head, and the lower reef-band is at the same distance from the upper one. It has also a middle-band, of one breadth of cloth, half-way between the lower reef-band and the foot, and linings of one breadth of cloth from the clue to the earing on the leeches; likewise four buntline-cloths, at equal distances asunder, extending from the foot to the middle-band. A middle-band is seldom used, in the merchant service, and the buntline-cloths run up one quarter of the depth of the sail: when used, they are generally put on when the sail is half worn. Two reef-cringles are made on each leech, one at each reef-band; three bowline-cringles are made at equal distances between the lower reef-cringle and the clue; and buntline cringles are made on the foot, one at the end of each buntline cloth. In sewing on the bolt-rope, two inches slack are taken up in every cloth, in the head and foot, and one inch and a half in every yard in the leeches. The marling-holes extend from the clue to the lower bowline cringle on the leech, and to the first buntline cringle at the foot: The clue is wormed with 3/4 of an inch ratline, parcelled with old canvas, well tarred, and served with spunyarn, it is then marled to the sail with marline or house-line, and seized with several turns of inch-line, strained tight with three cross-turns. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the product, to make it square; then multiply by the depth, and add the quantity in the gores, linings, bands, and pieces.
To find the quantity in the foot gores, add together the number of inches gored on each cloth on one side of the sail, and multiply the product by the number of gored cloths. EXAMPLES.
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A 20 Gunship's Main Course.
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A 20 Gunship's Fore Course.
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FORE-COURSE.
This sail is quadrilateral, square on the head, and made of canvas No. 1 or 2. It is bent, at the head, to the fore-yard, which hangs to the fore-mast at right angles with the ship’s length, and parallel to the deck. This sail extends within 18 inches of the cleats on the yard-arms, and drops to the main-stay at the foot.
One cloth is gored on each leech, and a gore is made on the foot, to drop the clue, 5 to 6 inches per cloth, beginning at two cloths within the nearest buntline-cringle to the clues. Sometimes, two cloths are gored on each leech, in the merchant-service. Two reef-bands, of one-third the breadth of a cloth, are put on at one-sixth of the depth of the sail asunder, the upper one being at that distance from the head: a middle-band, of one breadth of cloth, is put on half way between the lower reef-band and the foot: the linings on the leeches are of one breadth of cloth, and extend from the clue to the earing: and four buntline-cloths, at equal distances asunder, on the foot, are carried up to the middle-band. In the merchant-service, middle bands are seldom used, and the buntline-cloths run up one quarter of the depth of the sail. Marling-holes are made in the tabling from the clue to the nearest buntline-cringle on the foot, and one-eighth of the depth of the sail up the leech. They are turned on the contrary side to the roping, in fixing the sail. Two reef-cringles are made on the leeches, one at the end of each reef-band; as also are two bowline-cringles, the upper bowline-cringle is made in the middle of the leech, and the lower one equally distant from the upper one and the clue: a buntline-cringle is also made at the end of each buntline-cloth on the foot. The ends of the buntline-cringles next the clues should be left long enough to be worked under the service and meet the ends of the clue-rope. In sewing on the bolt-rope, two inches of slack-cloth should be taken up in every cloth, in the head and foot, and one inch and a half in every yard in the leeches. The clue is wormed with spunyarn, parcelled with slips of tarred canvas; served with 3 or 4 yarn spunyarn, marled on with marline or house-line, and seized with several turns of inch-line, strained tight with three cross-turns. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the product, to make it square; then multiply by the depth, and add the quantity in the gores, linings, bands, and pieces.
To find the quantity in the foot gores, add together the number of inches gored on each cloth on one side of the sail, and multiply the product by the number of gored cloths. EXAMPLES.
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MIZEN-COURSE.
This sail is quadrilateral, and made of canvas, No. 2 or 3. The head is bent to the mizen yard or gaff, and extends within 9 inches of the cleats. The fore-leech is attached to the mizen-mast within 6 or 7 feet of the deck, so that it hangs fore and aft in the plane of the ship’s keel.
The head is cut with a gore of 16 to 22 inches per cloth, agreeable to the peek: the foot is gored one-inch per cloth, leaving two cloths square in the middle. One cloth on the mast-leech is sometimes gored in the navy, and sometimes two cloths in the merchant-service. This sail has a reef-band, 6 or 8 inches broad, at one-fifth of the depth of the mast-leech from the foot. The after leech is lined from the clue with one breadth of cloth 5 yards in length, and the nock and peek with pieces so cut from each other that each contains one yard. One cringle is made on each leech at the ends of the reef-band; and one at the distance of every three-quarters of a yard on the mast-leech; or sometimes holes are worked in the tabling of the mast-leech: a cringle is also made 5 yards from the clue on the after leech for the throat-brails. Two inches of slack-cloth in every yard should be taken up in sewing the bolt-rope on the mast-leech, but none in the foot or after-leech. The marling-holes extend two feet each way from the clue; the clue is seized with three-quarter line, and is left 9 inches long from the seizing.
To find the quantity in the fore-gores. Multiply the number of cloths by the depth the square cloths its the middle are more than those at the tack; from the product subtract the gores from the square cloths to the tack and clue. EXAMPLES.
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A 20 Gunship's Mizen Course.
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A 20 Gunship's Main Topsail.
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MAIN-TOPSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, square on the head and foot, in the navy, and made of canvas, No. 2 or 3: it is bent at the head to the main-topsail yard, which hangs to the main top-mast at right angles with the ship’s length, and parallel to the main-yard: the sail extends within 18 inches of the cleats on the yard-arms, and drops to the main-yard, when its own yard is hoisted to the hounds.
The cloths on the leeches are gored sufficiently for the foot to spread the cleats on the main-yard. This sail has three or four reef-bands, put on at one-eighth of the depth of the sail asunder, the upper one being at that distance from the head. A middle-band is put on half-way between the lower reef-band and the foot; and the leeches are lined from clue to earing with one cloth, so cut, as, when put on, to be half a cloth broad at the head, and a cloth and a half broad at the foot. This sail has also a top-lining on the aft-side, of canvas, No. 6 or 7, which covers one-fifth of the cloths in the foot. Two mast-cloths are put on in the middle of the sail, on the aft-side, between the middle-band, and lower reef band, and buntline-cloths are put on the fore-side of the sail, one on each side of the top-lining, which have the ends carried up under the middle-band. One reef-cringle is made on the leeches at the end of each reef-band, and a reef-tackle-pendent-cringle between the lower reef and upper bowline-cringles: below these are four bowline-cringles; the upper one is on the middle of the leech, and the other three are equally distant from each other between the upper one and the clue. One buntline-cringle is made in the middle of each bunt-line cloth at the foot. Three inches of slack-cloth are taken up in sewing on the bolt-rope in every cloth in the head and foot; 2 inches are allowed for every cloth left open in the top-brim; and one inch and a half is taken up in every yard in the leeches. The bolt-rope against the top-brim is wormed, parcelled, &c. as the clues, and is marled to the sail. The marling-holes extend 3 feet each way from the clue, and along the breadth of the top-lining at the top-brim. In the merchant-service, the foot is gored from 2 to 4 inches per cloth, one-third of the breadth of the foot from the clues; the leech-linings are but 9 inches broad at the head, and 15 inches broad at the foot; the toplining and buntline-cloths cover one third of the cloths in the foot, and are carried up one-third of the depth of the sail; the buntline-cloths are half a yard shorter than the toplining; and the leeches have only three bowline-cringles.
EXAMPLE
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FORE-TOPSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, square on the head and foot in the royal navy, and made of canvas No. 2 or 3. The head is bent to the fore-topsail-yard, and it hangs to the main-mast at right-angles with the ship’s length, and parallel to the fore-yard, extending, at the head, within 18 inches of the cleats on the yard-arms.
The cloths on each leech are gored sufficiently for the foot to spread the length of the fore-yard. Sometimes, in the merchant-service the foot is gored 2 to 4 inches per cloth, from one-third of the breadth of the foot to the clues. One reef-cringle is made at the end of each reef-band, and a reef-pendent-cringle between the lower reef and upper bowline-cringles. The reef and reef-pendent-cringles are stuck through holes made in the tabling; and beneath them are made three bowline-cringles; the upper one upon the middle of the leech, and the others equally asunder between that and the clue: two buntline-cringles are also made in the middle of each buntline-cloth on the foot. The linings, cloths, bands, clues, &c. are the same as for the main topsail. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the product to make it square, then multiply by the depth and add the quantity in the linings, and bands.
EXAMPLE
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A 20 Gunship's Fore Topsail.
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A 20 Gunship's Main Topgallant Sail.
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MIZEN-TOPSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, square on the head, and made of canvas No. 4, 5, or 6: it is bent at the head to the mizen topsail yard, and hangs to the mizen topmast at right angles with the ship’s length, and parallel to the cross-jack-yard, extending within 12 inches of the cleats on the yardarms.
The cloths on the leeches are gored sufficiently for the foot to spread the length of the cross-jackyard, and the clues reach the sheet-blocks on the cross-jack-yard-arms, when both yards are hoisted. The gore on the foot is three quarters of a yard deep, and begins at two cloths from the buntline cringle, on the side next the clues. In the merchant-service, the foot is sometimes square. Mizen-topsails, for 50 gun-ships and upwards, have three reef-bands at one-eighth of the depth of the sail asunder from the head; and, for 44 gun-ships and under, two reef-bands, one-seventh of the depth of the sail asunder; also a middle-band, of one breadth of cloth, half-way between the lower reef-band and the foot. In the merchant-service, they have 2 reefs, as the 44 gun-ship, but no middle-band. The leeches are lined with one-breadth of cloth, so cut as to be half a cloth broad at the head, and a cloth and a half broad at the foot. In the merchant service, they are lined with part of a cloth, 9 inches broad at the head, and 15 inches at the foot. The top-lining covers one-fifth of the cloths in the foot: the upper-end is carried as high as the middle-band, and the band is tabled on it. The buntline-cloths join the top-lining, and are carried under the middle-band. In the merchant-service, the top-lining covers one-third of the cloths in the foot, and is carried up one-third of the depth of the sail, and the buntline-cloths are half a yard shorter than the top-lining. One inch and a half of slack-cloth is taken up, in sewing on the bolt-rope, in every yard in the leeches, three inches in every cloth in the head and foot, and and 2 inches are allowed for every cloth in the top-brim. One reef-cringle is made on the leeches at the end of each reef-band, and three bowline-cringles are made on each leech, the upper one in the middle of the leech, and the others equally distant between that and the clue. Forty-four gun ships and upwards have a reef-pendent-cringle between the lower reef and upper bowline-cringles. The clue and top-brim are wormed, parcelled, served, and marled as other topsails. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the product to make it square, then multiply by the depth of the sail, and add the quantity in the foot-gores, linings, and bands.
EXAMPLE.
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MAIN-TOPGALLANT-SAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, and square on the head and foot, in the navy, and made of canvas No. 6 or 7: the head is bent to the main-topgallant-yard, which hangs to the main-topgallant-mast at right angles with the ship’s length, and parallel to the main-topsail-yard, extending within 6 inches of the cleats on the yard-arms. The clues reach to the main-topsail-yard-arms, when both yards are hoisted.
The cloths on the leeches are gored sufficiently for the foot to spread the length of the main-top-sail-yard. A gore of 2 or 3 inches per cloth is often made on the foot, in the merchant-service, beginning at one-third of the breadth from the clue. The cloth at the clue is so cut as to fall to the foot and form its own lining; and earing-pieces of one quarter of a yard are put on each corner at the head. Three bowline-cringles are made on each leech, the upper one in the middle, and the others equally asunder between that and the clue. FORE-TOPGALLANT-SAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, and square on the head and foot, in the navy, and made of canvas No. 6 or 7: the head is bent to the fore-topgallant-yard, which hangs to the fore-topgallant-mast at right angles to the ship’s length, and parallel with the fore-topsail-yard, extending within 6 inches of the cleats on the yard-arms: the clues reach to the fore-topsail-yard-arms, when both yards are hoisted.
The cloths on the leeches are gored sufficiently for the foot to spread the length of the fore-topsail-yard: the cloth at each clue is so cut as to fall to the foot and form its own lining, and a piece, of one quarter of a yard, is put on each corner at the head. In the merchant-service, a gore is sometimes made on the foot, of 2 or 3 inches per cloth, beginning at one-third of the breadth from the clue. Three bowline-cringles are made on each leech; the upper one in the middle, and the others equally distant from that and the clue; as this sail may be occasionally used for the main-topgallant-sail. In the merchant-service, it has no cringles. MIZEN-TOPGALLANT-SAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, and square on the head and foot, in the navy, and made of canvas No. 7 or 8. The head is bent to the mizen-topgallant-yard, and it hangs to the mizen-topmast at right angles with the ship’s length, and parallel with the mizen-topsail-yard, extending within 6 inches of the cleats on the yard-arms. The clues reach to the mizen-topsail-yard-arms, when both yards are hoisted.
The leeches are gored sufficiently for the foot to spread the length of the mizen topsail-yard, and the pieces on the clues and earings are each a quarter of a yard in length. rule to find the quantity of canvas in main, fore, and mizen topgallant sails.
Add the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the product to make it square, then multiply by the depth, and add the quantity in the pieces.
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A 20 Gunship's Main Royal.
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A 20 Gunship's Mizen Royal.
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MAIN-ROYAL-SAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, square on the head and foot, and made of canvas No. 8: the head is bent to the main-royal-yard, which hangs to the main-topgallant-mast-head at right angles with the ship’s length, and parallel with the main-topgallant-yard, extending within 4 inches of the cleats on the yard-arms.
The cloths on the leeches are gored sufficiently for the foot to spread the length of the main-topgallant-yard, and the clues reach to the main-topgallant-yard-arms, when both yards are hoisted. FORE-ROYAL-SAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, square on the head and foot, and made of canvas No. 8: the head is bent to the fore-royal-yard, which hangs to the fore-topgallant-mast-head at right angles with the ship’s length, and parallel with the fore-topgallant-yard, extending within 4 inches of the cleats on the yard-arms.
The cloths are gored on the leeches sufficiently for the foot to spread the length of the fore-topgallant-yard, and it drops for the clues to reach the fore-topgallant-yard-arms, when both yards are hoisted. MIZEN-ROYAL-SAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, square on the head and foot, and made of canvas No. 8: the head is bent to the mizen-royal-yard, which hangs to the head of the mizen-topmast or top-gallant-mast, at right angles with the ship’s length, and parallel with the mizen-top-gallant-yard, extending within 4 inches of the cleats on the yard-arms.
The cloths are gored on each leech sufficiently for the foot to spread the mizen-topgallant-yard, and the clues reach to the mizen topgallant-yard-arms when both yards are hoisted.
*** This sail is seldom used.
rule for finding the quantity of canvas in main, fore, and mizen-royal sails.
Add the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the product to make it square, then multiply by the depth of the sail.
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MAIN STAYSAIL.
This sail is triangular, square on the foot in the royal-navy, and made of canvas No. 1 to 3. It is extended upon the main-staysail-stay, between the main and fore mast, so that the foot will clear the boat upon the booms.
*** This sail is seldom used in large vessels.
A regular gore is made on the stay of 17 to 19 inches per cloth. The cloth at the tack is so cut as to fall to the foot and form its own lining. The clue-piece extends two yards up the leech, and the peek-piece is one yard in length.
Holes are made on the stay 27 inches asunder, and marling-holes are made 2 feet each way from the clue. In sewing on the bolt-rope, 3 inches slack should be taken up in every yard in the stay, and one inch in every cloth in the foot, but none in the leech. Iron thimbles are sometimes stuck at the tack and peek, but when none, the tack and peek are the same as the clue. In the merchant-service, this sail is frequently cut with a bunt, and a gore is sometimes made on the foot, with a sweep. It also frequently has a reef-band at about 4 feet from the foot, and sometimes a bonnet. FORE STAYSAIL.
This sail is triangular, square on the foot, and made of canvas No. 1 to 3. It is extended on the fore-stay between the fore-mast and bow sprit.
A regular gore is made on the stay of 21 to 23 inches per cloth. The cloth at the tack is so cut as to fall to the foot, and form its own lining; the clue-piece extends two yards up the leech, and the peek-piece is half a yard in length. The holes on the stay are 27 inches asunder, and the marling-holes extend 2 feet each way from the clue. Three inches slack should be taken up in every yard in the stay when sewing on the bolt-rope, and one inch in every cloth in the foot. The tack and peek are sometimes fixed on, or are marled, as the clue. Thimbles are sometimes stuck at the tack and peek, but when none, the tack and peek are the same as the clue. RULE FOR FINDING THE QUANTITY OF CANVAS IN MAIN AND FORE STAYSAILS.
Multiply half the number of cloths by the depth of the leech, and add the quantity in the pieces.
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A 20 Gunship's Fore Stay Sail.
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MIZEN STAYSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, square on the foot, and made of canvas No. 2 or 3: it has a bunt three-fifths of the depth of the leech in the navy, and one-third or one-fourth of the depth of the leech in the merchant-service; and it is extended on the mizen-stay between the main and mizen masts. The foot drops within 6 or 7 feet of the quarter-deck.
Two cloths are generally gored on the bunt, and the stay from 10 to 12 inches per cloth. If the depth of the bunt be subtracted from the depth of the leech, the remainder, divided by the number of gored cloths, gives the depth of each gore on the stay. The bunt or fore-part is lined with half a breadth of cloth; the clue-piece is two yards long, and the peek-piece one yard. In the merchant-service the tack, peek, and nock pieces are generally but three-quarters of a yard in length. Holes are made in the stay, three-quarters of a yard asunder, and marling-holes two feet each way from the clue. Three inches of slack cloth should be taken in with the rope in every yard in the stay, and one inch in every cloth in the foot, but none in the leech. Thimbles are sometimes stuck at the tack and peek; but, when thimbles are not used, the tack and peek are frequently marled as the clue. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add the depth of the bunt to the depth of the leech, and halve the same for a medium depth; add the cloths in the head and foot, and halve the product to make it square; then multiply the number of square cloths by the medium depth, and add the quantity in the lining and pieces.
EXAMPLE.
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MAIN TOPMAST STAYSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, cut square on the foot, and made of canvas No. 5, or 6. It is extended on the main-topmast preventer-stay, between the main and fore topmasts. The leech is 4 or 5 yards deeper than the main-topsail, and there are one or two cloths more in the foot than the leech is yards in depth.
In large merchant-ships, the leech is 4 or 5 yards deeper than the main-topsail, but, in smaller ships, only 1 or 2 yards; and there are from 1 to 3 cloths more in the foot than the leech is yards in depth. The bunt is two-fifths of the depth of the leech: but in the merchant-service it is from two-fifths to one-half of the depth. Two cloths are generally gored on the bunt, and the stay is gored 22 inches per cloth. If the depth at the nock-seam be subtracted from the depth of the leech, the remainder, divided by the number of gored cloths, gives the depth of each gore on the stay. The bunt is lined with half a breadth of cloth. The clue-piece is two yards long, and the peek-piece one yard. In the merchant-service this sail generally has tack, nock, and peek pieces, each, three quarters of a yard in length. The holes on the stay are 27 inches asunder, and marling-holes are made two feet each way from the clue. Three inches of slack-cloth should be taken up in every yard in the stay, and one inch in every cloth in the foot, but none in the leech. Thimbles are sometimes stuck in the tack and peek: when there are none, the tack and peek are the same as the clue, and are fixed or marled on. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add the depth of the bunt to the depth of the leech, and halve the product for a medium: add the number of cloths in the foot and upper part together, and halve the product to make it square: then multiply the number of squared cloths by the medium depth, and add the quantity in the lining and pieces.
EXAMPLE.
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A 20 Gunship's Main Topmast Stay Sail.
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A 20 Gunship's Middle Stay Sail.
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FORE TOPMAST STAYSAIL.
This sail is triangular, cut square on the foot, and made of canvas No. 5, 6, or 7. It is extended on the fore-topmast-staysail-stay, and the foot is spread on the bowsprit. The leech is of the same depth as the fore-topsail; and 2 or 3 cloths are allowed in the foot for every yard in the depth of the leech. In the merchant-service, one cloth only is allowed in the foot for every yard in the depth of the leech.
The stay is gored 30 inches per cloth. The depth of the gore on each cloth in the stay is found by dividing the depth of the leech by the number of cloths. The cloth at the tack is so cut as to fall to the foot and form its own lining. The clue-piece is two yards long, and the peek-piece one yard. In the merchant-service, the piece at the clue is in general but one yard in length, and the tack and peek pieces half a yard each. The holes on the stay are 27 inches asunder, and the marling-holes extend two feet each way from the clue. Three inches slack should be taken up, in sewing on the rope, in every yard in the stay, and one inch in every cloth in the foot. Thimbles are sometimes stuck at the tack and peek: when there are none, the tack and peek are the same as the clue, and are fixed or marled on. The clue is seized with small line. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Multiply half the number of cloths in the foot by the depth of the leech, and add the quantity in the pieces.
EXAMPLE.
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MIDDLE STAYSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, cut square on the foot, and made of canvas No. 6, or 7. It has a square bunt five-twelfths of the depth of the leech, and it is extended on the middle-staysail-stay, between the main-topmast-stay and main-topgallant-stay.
The leech is from 4 to 7 yards deeper than the main-topgallant-sail, and there are from 6 to 8 cloths more in the foot than the leech is yards in depth. Sloops and brigs in the navy have only from one to three cloths more in the foot than yards in the depth of the leech. In the merchant-service, the leech is sometimes of the same depth as the main-topgallant-sail, but generally, one, two, or three yards more; and the sail has from 5 to 10 cloths more in the foot than yards in the depth of the leech. The stay is gored 13 inches and a half per cloth. If the depth of the bunt be subtracted from the depth of the leech, the remainder, divided by the number of cloths, gives the depth of each gore on the stay. The bunt is lined with half a breadth of cloth, the clue with a piece two yards long, and the peek with a piece one yard in length. Three inches of slack-cloth should be taken up in every yard in the stay, when sewing on the rope, and one inch in every cloth in the foot. Thimbles are sometimes stuck at the tack and peek: when there are none, the tack and peek are the same as the clue, and are marled on. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add the depth of the bunt to the depth of the leech, and halve the same for a medium depth; then multiply the medium depth by the number of cloths, and add the quantity in the lining and pieces.
EXAMPLE.
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A 20 Gunship's Mizen Topmast Stay Sail.
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MIZEN TOPMAST STAYSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, cut square on the foot, and made of canvas No. 7. It has a bunt three-sevenths or one-third of the depth of the leech, and is extended on the mizen-topmast-stay between the main and mizen topmasts.
The leech is one or two yards deeper than the mizen-topsail, and there are from 2 to 5 cloths more in the foot than the leech is yards in depth. One cloth is generally gored on the bunt, and the stay is gored twenty-four inches per cloth. If the length of the nock-seam be subtracted from the depth of the leech, the remainder, divided by the number of cloths in the stay, gives the depth of each gore. The bunt is lined with half a breadth of cloth; the clue-piece is 2 yards long, and the peek-piece one yard. In the merchant-service the clue-piece is generally one yard long, and the peek-piece half a yard. Three inches slack should be taken up in every yard in the stay, and one inch in every cloth in the foot. Thimbles are generally stuck in the tack and peek; but, when no thimbles, the tack and peek are the same as the clue. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add together the depth of the bunt and the depth of the leech, and halve the product for a medium: then add the number of cloths in the stay and foot, and halve the product to make it square: multiply the number of square cloths by the medium depth, and add the quantity in the lining and pieces.
EXAMPLE.
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MAIN TOPGALLANT STAYSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, cut square on the foot, and made of canvas No. 7. It has a bunt from one-third to three-sevenths of the depth of the leech, and is extended on the main-topgallant-staysail-stay between the main and fore topgallant-masts.
The leech is nearly of the same depth as the leech of the middle-staysail, and there are from 3 to 6 cloths more in the foot than the leech is yards in depth. In the merchant-service, there are from 2 to 8 cloths more in the foot than the leech is yards in depth. The stay is gored 24 inches per cloth. If the depth of the bunt be subtracted from the depth of the leech, the remainder, divided by the number of cloths, gives the depth of the gore on each cloth. The bunt is lined with half a breadth of cloth, the clue-piece is two yards long, and the peek-piece one yard. In the merchant-service, the clue-piece is only one yard; and the tack, nock, and peek pieces are each half a yard in length. The holes on the stay are 27 inches asunder. In sewing on the bolt-rope, three inches slack should be taken up in every yard in the stay, and one inch in every cloth in the foot. Thimbles are generally stuck at the tack, nock, and peek. When there are no thimbles, the tack and peek are the same as the clue. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add the depth of the bunt and depth of the leech together, and halve the product for a medium depth, which multiply by the number of cloths in the sail, and add the quantity in the lining and pieces.
EXAMPLE.
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A 20 Gunship's Lower Main Studding Sail.
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LOWER MAIN STUDDINGSAILS.
These sails are quadrilateral, cut square on the head, foot, and leeches, and made of canvas No. 6 or 7. They spread beyond the skirts or leeches of the main-course, the heads being bent to the main-studdingsail-yards, and the feet extended on the boom.
The sails are 2 or 3 yards deeper than the main-course. In large ships, two cloths more, and, in small ships, one cloth less, are allowed, for the breadth, than the number of yards in the depth. But, in the merchant-service, they are only one yard deeper, or of the same depth as the maincourse; and from 2 to 7 cloths are allowed in the foot more than the number of yards in the depth. A reef-band, 6 inches wide, is put on at one-eighth of the depth from the head, and pieces of one-quarter or half a yard in length are sometimes put on at the clues and earings. One inch of slack-cloth should be taken up, in sewing on the bolt-rope, in every cloth in the foot. The rope should be sewed home to the clue, and a reef-cringle made at each end of the reef-band. LOWER FORE STUDDINGSAILS.
These sails are quadrilateral, square on the head, foot, and leeches, and made of canvas No. 6 or 7. They are spread beyond the skirts, or leeches of the fore-course, the heads being bent to the fore-studdingsail-yards, and the feet extended on the boom.
The depth is the same as the main-course, or from one to two yards more, and the breadth is one cloth less than the main-studdingsail. One quarter or half a yard of cloth is sometimes put on at the clues and earings. One inch of slack-cloth should be taken up in every cloth in the foot, when sewing on the bolt-rope, which is to be sewed home to the clues. rule to find the quantity of canvas in the lower main and fore studdingsails.
Multiply the depth of the sail by the number of cloths, and add the quantity in the pieces.
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MAIN TOPMAST STUDDING SAILS.
These sails are quadrilateral, and made of canvas No. 6 or 7. They are spread beyond the skirts or leeches of the main-topsail, the heads being bent to their respective yards, and the feet extended on the boom.
The depth is one yard more than the main-topsail, and two cloths less are allowed for the breadth of the foot than the number of yards in the depth of the leech. Four cloths are gored on the outer leech, in the navy, and from 4 to 7 cloths in the merchant-service; and a regular gore is made on the head and foot of 4 inches per cloth, decreasing to the outer earing at the head, and increasing to the tack or outer clue at the foot. A reef-band, 6 inches broad, is put on at one-eighth of the depth of the sail from the head. One inch and a half slack-cloth should be taken up in every yard in the gored leech, when sewing on the bolt-rope, and one inch in every cloth in the foot, but none in the square leech. The rope is to be sewed home to the clue. One reef-cringle is made on the leeches at each end of the reef-band, and a downhaul-cringle is made on the outer leech, about half the depth of the leech from the head. FORE TOPMAST STUDDINGSAILS.
These sails are quadrilateral, and made of canvas No. 6 or 7. They are spread beyond the leeches of the fore-topsail, the heads being bent to their respective yards, and the feet extended on the boom.
The depth is one yard more than the main-topsail, and one cloth less is allowed for the breadth of the foot than in the main-topmast-studdingsail. Four cloths are gored on the outer leech, in the navy, and from 4 to 7 cloths, in the merchant service; and a regular gore is made on the head and foot of 4 inches per cloth, decreasing to the outer earing at the head, and increasing to the tack or outer-clue at the foot. One inch and a half slack-cloth should be taken up in every yard in the gored leech, when sewing on the rope, and one inch in every cloth in the foot, but none in the square leech. The rope is to be sewed home to the clue, and a downhaul-cringle is made on the outer leech at about half the depth of the sail from the head. rule to find the quantity of canvas in the main and fore topmast studdingsails.
Add the number of cloths in the head and foot together, and halve the product to make it square, then multiply the number of square cloths by the depth, and add the quantity in the bands, &c.
EXAMPLE FOR THE MAIN TOPMAST STUDDINGSAIL.
8 cloths in the heal.12 cloths in the foot. — 1/2) 20 — 10 square cloths. 24 yards deep. 1 1/4 yards in the reef-bands. — Total 141 1/4 yards, for a 20 gun ship. EXAMPLE FOR THE FORE TOPMAST STUDDINGSAIL.
7 cloths in the head.11 cloths in the foot. — 1/2) 18 — 9 square cloths. 12 1/2 yards deep. — Total 112 1/2 yards, in a 20 gun ship. |
A 20 Gunship's Main Topmast Studding Sail.
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A 20 Gunship's Main Topgallant Studding Sail.
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MAIN TOPGALLANT STUDDING-SAILS
These sails are quadrilateral, and made of canvas No. 7 or 8. They spread beyond the skirts or leeches of the main-topgallant-sail, the heads being bent on their respective yards, and the feet extended on the boom.
The depth is half a yard more than the main-topgallant-sail. In large ships, there are 5 cloths more allowed for the breadth of the foot than the number of yards in the depth, but in small ships there are only 3 more, or the same as the number of cloths in the breadth of the foot as yards in the depth of the leech. The outer leech is gored from two to four cloths, and an even gore is made on the head and foot from 3 to 5 inches per cloth, decreasing to the outer earing at the head, and increasing to the tack at the foot. One inch and a half of slack-cloth should be taken up in every yard, when sewing the bolt-rope on the gored leech, and one inch in every cloth in the foot, but none in the square leech. The rope is sewed to the clue, and the clue is seized with small line. FORE TOPGALLANT STUDDING-SAILS
These sails are quadrilateral, and made of canvas No. 7 or 8. They are spread beyond the leeches of the foretopgallant-sail, the heads being bent on their respective yards, and the feet extended on the boom.
The depth is half a yard more than the main-topgallant-sail. In large ships, there are 5 cloths more allowed for the breadth of the foot than the number of yards in the depth, but in small ships there are only 3 more, or the number of cloths in the foot as yards in the depth of leech. The outer leech is gored from two to four cloths, and an even gore is made on the head and the foot from 3 to 5 inches per cloth, decreasing to the outer earing at the head, and increasing to the tack at the foot. One inch and a half of slack-cloth should be taken up in every yard in the gored leech, when sewing on the rope, and one inch in every yard in the foot, but none in the square leech. rule to find the quantity of canvas in main and fore topgallant studding-sails.
Add together the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the product to make it square; then multiply the number of square cloths by the depth of the sail.
EXAMPLE FOR THE MAIN TOPGALLANT-SAIL.
6 cloths in the head.8 cloths in the foot. — 1/2) 14 — 7 square cloths. 7 yards deep. — Total 49 yards, for a 20 gun ship. 7 cloths in the foot. — 1/2) 12 — 6 square cloths. 6 1/4 yards deep. — Total 37 1/2 yards, for a 20 gun ship. |
JIB.
This sail is triangular, and made of canvas No. 6 or 7. It is the foremost sail of a ship, and differs in shape but little from a staysail. The foot is extended from the outer end of the bowsprit by the jib-boom, and it slides on the jib-stay, which is attached to the fore-topmast head. The leech is about twice the depth of the leech of the fore-staysail, and one cloth more is allowed for the breadth of the foot, than the leech is yards in depth.
The stay is cut with a curve, or roach. The length of the regular gore per cloth may be found by dividing the depth of the stay by the number of cloths. The gores should be allowed full, and the curve cut fair after the sail is sewed together. The foot has an even gore of 3 inches per cloth, decreasing from the tack to the clue, which is governed by the stive of the bowsprit. For brigs, this sail has a circular foot, and sometimes for ships, in the merchant-service. The seams are generally one inch broader at the foot than at the head, when cut with a circular or roach foot. The clue-piece is two yards, and the peek-piece is one yard long, and the cloth at the tack is so cut as to fall to the foot and form its own lining. Marling-holes are made two feet each way from the clue, and one hole is made in every yard in the stay. In sewing on the bolt-rope, four or five inches of slack-cloth should be taken up in every yard in the stay, and one inch in every cloth in the foot. Iron thimbles are sometimes seized in at the tack and peek; but, when thimbles are not used, the tack and peek are the same as the clue, and are frequently marled on. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Multiply the depth of the leech by half the number of cloths in the sail, and add to the product the quantity in the foot-gores and pieces.
To find the quantity in the foot-gores. Multiply half the number of cloths in the foot by the regular gore per cloth, and the product, multiplied by the whole number of cloths gives the answer. EXAMPLE.
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A 20 Gunship's Jibb.
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A 20 Gunship's Spritsail Course.
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SPRITSAIL COURSE.
This sail is quadrilateral, square on the head, foot, and leeches, and made of canvas No. 2 or 3. It is bent at the head to the spritsail-yard, and hangs under the bowsprit at right angles with the ship’s length, extending within 9 inches of the cleats on the yard-arms. Two reef-bands, one-third of the breadth of a cloth, are put on diagonally; the ends on the leeches being 27 inches from the clues, and those at the head on the first or second seam from the earings. Sometimes a reef-band is put on from leech to leech, at one-fifth of the depth of the sail from the head. A water-hole, from 4 to 6 inches diameter, is made in the second cloth from each leech, near the foot, or opposite the reef-cringles. The marling holes extend two feet each way from the clues. A reef-cringle is made on the leeches at the end of each reef-band, and two buntline-cringles are made on the foot-rope, at one-third of the breadth of the foot from each clue. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Multiply the number of cloths by the depth, and add the quantity in the reef-bands. EXAMPLE.
SPRITSAIL TOPSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, cut square on the head and foot, and made of canvas No. 6 or 7. The head is bent to the spritsail topsail-yard, which hangs under the jib-boom at right angles with the ship’s length, and the foot is spread on the spritsail-yard. It has as many cloths in the head as the fore-topgallant-sail; and is of the same depth as the main-topgallant-sail, in the navy, but from one to two yards deeper, in the merchant-service. The leeches are gored from 4 to 5 cloths sufficiently for the foot to spread to the cleats on the outer ends of the spritsail-yard. Two inches of slack-cloth should be taken up in every cloth in the foot, when sewing on the bolt-rope, and one inch in every yard in the leeches. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add together the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the sum, to make it square: then multiply the number of square cloths by the depth.
EXAMPLE.
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DRIVER BOOMSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, made of canvas No. 5 or 6, and is occasionally hoisted to the mizen-yard or gaff, in light fair winds. The fore leech is attached to the mizen-mast, and the head to the mizen-yard or gaff; the foot is extended by the boom which hangs fore and aft in the plane of the ship’s keel. The fore-leech is nearly of the same depth as the fore-leech of the mizen course, and the after-leech is from 2 to 4 yards deeper than the after-leech of the mizen-course. The head, foot, and mast-leech, are cut with a roach or curve; and, as no strict rule can be laid down, the gores must be judiciously encreased or diminished according to the sweep required. The gore on the head is at the rate of from 9 to 12 inches per cloth; and on the foot from 6 to 9 inches; or about 27 inches for every cloth in the mast-leech. From 4 to 6 cloths next the clue are cut square; or, the fifth cloth next the clue being square, the other four cloths are short-gored one inch per cloth to the clue. From 4 to 6 cloths are gored on the mast-leech; and, if the depth of the leech be divided by the number of cloths in it, the quotient will be the regular gore per cloth, which must be augmented on the middle cloths so as to form the sweep required. The clue-lining is two or three yards in length, and the tack, nock, and peek pieces are each one yard in length. The seams are 6 inches broad, 6 feet up the sail from the foot; and 2 inches broad 4 feet down from the head: the remainder is one inch broad. Two inches of slack-cloth should be taken up with the rope in every yard in the mast-leech, and one inch in every cloth in the foot. Iron thimbles are generally spliced in the rope at the tack, nock, peek, and clue, which are other-wise fitted as the mizen-course. Cringles for the lacing are made on the mast-leech 30 inches asunder. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add together the number of cloths in the head and foot. and halve the product to make it square add together the depth of the fore and after leeches, and halve the sum for a medium depth: then multiply the number of square cloths by the medium depth, and add the quantity in the foot-gores and pieces. To find the quantity in the foot gores. Add together the depth of the gore on each cloth to the tack, and halve it for a medium; then multiply by the number of cloths gored to the tack. EXAMPLE.
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A 20 Gunship's Driver Boom Sail.
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A 160 Ton Brigg's Mainsail.
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A BRIG’S MAINSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, and made of canvas No. 5 or 6. The fore-leech is in depth nearly the length of the main-mast from the under part of the hounds to the boom, and is fastened, in different places, to hoops which encircle the mast. The depth of the after-leech is about one-third more than the depth of the fore-leech. The head is bent to the gaff, and spreads within 9 inches of the cleats on the outer end; and the foot is extended by the boom, which hangs abaft the main-mast, and spreads within 18 inches of the sheave-hole at the outer end.
The seams are three inches broad 8 feet, up the sail from the foot, and two inches broad 8 feet down from the head: the remainder is one inch broad. The head and mast-leech are sometimes gored with a small circular sweep, which must be regulated by practice. The regular gore on the head is from 4 to 5 inches per cloth, and the sweep may be cut after the sail is sewed together. The foot is gored with a circular sweep, at the rate of 5 or 7 inches per cloth, leaving 4 or 5 square cloths at the clue, or at the rate of 14 to 18 inches per cloth for every cloth in the mast-leech, which has 5 or 6 gored cloths in it. This sail has three reef-bands, 6 inches broad, parallel to the foot. The upper one is nearly half way up the fore-leech, and the others are at equal distances between that and the foot; it also sometimes has a balance-reef from the nock to the upper reef-cringle on the after-leech. The after-leech is lined with one breadth of cloth from the clue to one yard above the upper reef band; half a yard of the lining is cut down at the upper end, and the inner part is doubled under, or cut off. The peek-piece is one yard in length, and the fore-leech is lined with half a breadth of cloth; or sometimes pieces, one yard in length, are put on at the tack and nock, and small triangular pieces at each hole. Four inches of slack-cloth should be taken up with the rope in every yard in the mast-leech. Large iron thimbles are stuck in the cringles at the clue, peek, nock, and tack; also in the cringles made on the leeches at the ends of the reef-bands: a luff-cringle is made on the mast-leech, equidistant from the lower reef-band and the foot, which also has a thimble. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add together the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the product to make it square: add together the depth of the fore and after leeches, and halve their sum for a medium depth: then multiply the number of square cloths by the medium depth, and add the quantity in the gores, linings, and pieces.
To find the quantity in the foot gores. Add together the gores on each cloth, and multiply half the sum by the number of cloths gored. EXAMPLE.
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CUTTER’S MAINSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, and made of canvas No. 1 or 2. The fore-leech is nearly of the depth of the mast from the under part of the hounds to the boom, and is fastened in different places to hoops which encircle the mast: the after-leech is about one-third deeper than the fore-leech. The head is bent to a gaff and spreads within 18 inches of the cleats at the outer end; and the foot spreads within 2 or 3 feet of the sheave-hole at the outer end of the boom, which hangs fore and aft abaft the mast. Six or eight cloths are gored on the fore-leech, and its length divided by that number of cloths gives the length of the gore on each cloth; the head is gored at the rate of 5 or 7 inches per cloth; and sometimes the fore-leech and head are cut with a small circular sweep, which must be cut by judgement, or after the sail is sewed together. In the merchant-service, the head is generally wider, and peeks less, than in the royal-navy. The foot is gored with a circular sweep at the rate of 5 to 7 inches per cloth from the tack to the middle of the foot; then, two or three cloths being less square, the remaining cloths to the clue are gored at the rate of a full inch per cloth. Four reef-bands, 8 inches broad, are put on parallel to the foot; the upper one is about three-sevenths of the depth up the fore-leech from the foot, and the others at equal distances between that and the foot. The seams are 5 inches broad 12 feet up the sail from the foot, and 3 inches broad 8 feet down from the head: the remainder is one inch and a half broad. In sewing on the rope four or five inches of slack-cloth should be taken up in every yard in the depth of the fore-leech. Large iron thimbles are stuck in the cringles at the clue, peek, nock, and tack, and also in the reef-cringles at the ends of the reef-bands. A luff-cringle is made on the fore-leech between the lower reef-band and the tack, which also has a thimble. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add together the depth of the fore and after leeches, and halve the same for a medium depth: add the number of cloths in the head and foot together, and halve the sum to make it square: then multiply the number of square cloths by the medium depth, and add the quantity in the foot gores, linings, and pieces. To find the quantity of canvas in the foot gores. Add together the gores from the tack to the first square cloth in the foot, and multiply halve the sum by the number of cloths in the foot: then add together the gores from the clue to the first square cloth, and multiply half the sum by the number of cloths gored to the clue; which, subtracted from the product of the gores to the tack, gives the answer. EXAMPLE.
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A 200 Ton Cutter's Mainsail.
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A 200 Ton Cutter's Trysail, or Storm-Main-sail.
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CUTTER’S TRYSAIL.
This sail is occasionally used, instead of the main-sail, in stormy weather, and is quadrilateral, generally cut square on the head, and made of canvas No. 1 or 2. It is extended as the main-sail, the fore-leech being attached to hoops which encircle the mast. The head is bent to a gaff, and the foot is extended by the boom. In the head of the trysail there are two-fifths of the number of cloths that are in the head of the main-sail: the fore-leech is about three-fourths of the depth of the fore-leech of the main-sail, and the after-leech is one-sixth deeper than the fore-leech. Eight or ten cloths are gored on the fore-leech; and its depth, divided by the number of cloths, gives the length of each gore: if cut with a sweep, the gores can only be regulated by practice, or the sweep cut after the sail is sewed up. The foot is gored with a circular sweep at the rate of 5 or 7 inches per cloth from the tack, leaving two or three square cloths at the clue. The seams should be 5 inches broad 12 feet up from the foot; and 3 inches broad 8 feet down from the head. The remainder is one inch and a half broad. This sail has three reef-bands, 6 inches wide, parallel with the foot; the upper one is three-eighths of the depth of the fore-leech from the foot, and the others are at equal distances between the foot and the upper one. It also has three strengthening bands of half a breadth of cloth, at equal distances between the upper reef-band and the head, which are seamed on, and stuck along the middle. The after-leech is lined with one breadth of cloth, from the clue to one yard and a half above the upper reef-band, where it is cut half way across; and, one half of it being cut off, it is so continued about one yard higher. Four or five inches of slack-cloth should be taken up with the rope in every yard in the fore-leech. Iron thimbles are stuck in cringles made at the clue, peek, nock, and tack; also in reef-cringles on the leeches at the ends of the reef-bands, and in a luff-cringle made on the fore-leech between the lower reef-cringle and the foot. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add together the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the sum to make it square; then add the depth of the fore and after leeches together, and halve the sum for a medium depth. Multiply the medium depth by the number of cloths, and add the quantity in the bands, linings, and pieces. To find the quantity in the foot-gores. Add together the gores in each cloth, and multiply half the sum by the number of gored cloths. EXAMPLE.
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SLOOP’S MAINSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, and made of canvas No. 1 or 2. The fore-leech is nearly of the depth of the mast from the under part of the hounds to the boom, and is attached to hoops which encircle the mast. The after-leech is about one-third deeper than the fore-leech. The head is bent to the gaff, and spreads within 12 inches of the outer end; and the foot is extended by the boom, which hangs fore and aft abaft the mast, and spreads within one or two feet of the sheave-hole at the outer end. The head is gored at the rate of 3 to 6 inches per cloth, and is sometimes cut circular; and the foot is gored with a circular sweep, at the rate of 5 inches, to 6 inches and a half per cloth, 4 or 5 cloths next the clue being left square. The gore on the foot is governed by the number of cloths in the mast-leech; from 12 to 14 inches gore being allowed on each cloth in the foot for every cloth in the mast-leech. From 6 to 8 cloths are gored on the fore-leech; and its depth, divided by that number of cloths, gives the length of each gore. It is sometimes cut circular. This sail generally has three or four reef-bands, 4 or 6 inches broad, parallel to the foot; the upper one is about half way up the fore-leech, and the others are at equal distances between the upper one and the foot. Sometimes the reefs are fitted without bands. It also frequently has a balance-reef from the nock to the upper reef-cringle. The after-leech is lined with one breadth of cloth from the clue to two feet above the upper reef-band: this lining is cut down the middle at the upper end; and, half of it being cut away, the remaining part is so continued half a yard higher. The mast-leech is lined with half a breadth of cloth from the tack to the nock; and the peek-piece is one yard and a half in length. Sometimes pieces one yard and a quarter long are put on at the nock and tack, and small triangular pieces at each hole, instead of a mast-lining. The seams should be 4 inches broad 9 feet up the seam from the foot; and two inches broad 6 feet down the seam from the head. The remainder should be one full inch broad. The bolt-rope on the mast-leech should be 2 inches and a half or 3 inches in circumference; and on the head, foot, and after-leech, one inch and a half. The clue-rope should be 3 inches and a half or 4 inches. Sometimes the foot-rope is not put on till the sail is half worn. When sewing on the rope, 4 inches of slack-cloth should be taken up in every yard in the mast-leech. Iron thimbles are stuck in cringles at the tack, nock, peek, and clue. Thimbles are also stuck in cringles at the ends of the reef-bands, and in a luff-cringle on the mast-leech. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add together the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the product to make it square: add the depth of the fore and after leeches together, and halve the sum for a medium depth: then multiply the number of square cloths by the medium depth, and add the quantity in the foot gores, linings, bands, and pieces. To find the quantity in the foot gores. Add together the gores on each cloth, and multiply half the product by the number of gored cloths. EXAMPLE.
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Sloop's Mainsail.
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Sloop's Trysail, or Storm-Main-sail.
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SLOOP’S TRYSAIL, OR STORM MAINSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, generally cut square on the head, and made of canvas No. 1 or 2. It is occasionally used for the mainsail in stormy weather. The fore-leech is from three-fourths of the depth to the same depth as the mainsail, and the after-leech is one-eighth deeper than the fore-leech. The head has two-fifths of the number of cloths that are in the head of the mainsail, and the foot is three-times the breadth of the head. This sail is extended as the mainsail; the fore-leech being attached to hoops which encircle the mast: the head is bent to a gaff, and the foot is extended by the boom. Eight or ten cloths are gored on the fore-leech; and its depth, divided by the number of cloths, gives the length of each gore: is cut with a sweep, the gores can only be regulated by judgement. The foot is gored with a circular sweep, at the rate of 6 or 8 inches per cloth. This sail has three or four reef-bands, from 4 to 6 inches wide, parallel with the foot; the upper one is neatly half-way up the fore-leech, and the others are at equal distances between that and the foot. It also has two or three strengthening bands, half a cloth broad, at equal distances asunder, above the upper reef-band, which are stuck, or stitched, along the middle. The after-leech is lined with one breadth of cloth, from the clue to one yard and a quarter above the upper reef-band, which is there cut down the middle; and one part being cut away, the other is so continued about one yard higher. The fore-leech is lined with half a breadth of cloth and, the peek with a piece one yard and a half in length. Sometimes a piece, one yard in length, is put on at the nock. The seams should be 5 inches broad, 12 feet up the seam from the foot; and 3 inches broad, 8 feet down the seam from the head. The remainder is one inch and a half broad. The bolt-rope for the mast-leech should be 2 inches and a half or 3 inches in circumference; for the head, foot, and after-leech, one inch and a half. The ropes-ropes should be three inches and a half or four inches. When sewing on the rope 4 or 5 inches of slack-cloth should be taken up in every yard in the fore-leech. Iron thimbles are stuck in the clue, peek, nock, and tack; also in the cringles at the ends of the reef-bands; and in a luff-cringle, made on the fore-leech, between the lower reef-cringle and the tack. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add together the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the product, to make it square: add together the depth of the fore and after leeches, and halve the same for a medium depth; then multiply the number of square cloths by the medium depth, and add the quantity in the foot-gores, bands, lining, and pieces. To find the quantity in the foot gores. Add the gores on each cloth together, and multiply half the sum, by the number of gored cloths. EXAMPLE.
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SLOOP’S SQUARE-SAIL, OR CROSS-JACK.
This sail is quadrilateral, square on the head and leeches, and made of canvas No. 6 or 7. The head is bent to the cross-jack-yard, and it hangs at right angles with the ship’s length, and parallel to the deck, extending within 6 inches of the cleats on the yard-arms. The depth of this sail is four-fifths of the depth of the fore-leech of the mainsail. The foot is gored one inch per cloth, encreasing to each clue; two or three square cloths being left in the middle. This sail has two reef-bands, four inches broad; the lower one is at one-sixth of the depth of the sail from, and parallel, to the foot; and the upper one is at the same distance from the head. One yard of cloth is put on at each clue, half a yard at each earing, and half a yard against every cringle on the leeches. These linings are all put on the aftside. A reef-cringle is made at each end of the upper reef-band; and three bowline-cringles are made on each leech; the upper bowline-cringle is on the middle of the leech, and the others are equally distant from that and the clue. Sometimes the clues are marled on; and, for this purpose, ten marling-holes are made each way from the clues. The bolt-rope, on the foot and leeches, should be one inch and a half or two inches in circumference; and, on the head, one inch or one inch and a half. The clue-rope, when any, should be two inches and a half. When sewing on the bolt-rope, one inch of slack-cloth should be taken up in every cloth in the head and foot. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Multiply the number of cloths by the depth, and add the quantity in the foot-gores, bands, and pieces.
To find the quantity in the foot-gores. Add together the gores on each cloth on one side of the sail, and multiply the sum by half the number of gored cloths. EXAMPLE.
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Sloop's Square Sail, or Cross-Jack.
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Sloop's Topsail.
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SLOOP’S TOPSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, square on the head, and made of canvas No. 6 or 7. It is bent at the head to the topsail yard, extending within 18 inches of the cleats, and hangs to the mast at right angles with the ship’s length, and parallel to the cross-jack-yard. The depth in the middle is one-third of the depth of the cross-jack, or square-sail. From one to two cloths are gored on the leeches, sufficiently for the foot to spread to the cleats on the cross-jack-yard; and the foot is hollowed from one-third to half of the depth of the sail in the middle, (on account of the jib-stay,) or at the rate of 10 or 12 inches per cloth from the middle to the clue, the middle cloth being left square. This sail has one reef-band, 4 inches broad, at about one-third of the depth of the middle-cloth from the head. Pieces, half a yard in length, are put on at each earing; and six small pieces, cut out of half a yard of cloth, are put on the leeches, one against each bowline-cringle. The pieces are all put on the aftside. About three-quarters of an inch of slack-cloth should be taken up in every yard in the leeches, half an inch in every cloth in the head, and one inch in every cloth in the foot. The bolt-rope on the foot and leeches, should be one inch and a half, or two inches, in circumference; and, on the head, one inch, or one inch and a half. The clue-rope should be 2 inches and a half. Sometimes one reef and three bowline-cringles are made on each leech. The reef-cringles are made at the ends of the reef-band; the upper bowline-cringle in the middle of the leech; and the others equally distant from that and the clue. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add together the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the sum, to reduce it square; then multiply the number of square cloths by the depth in the middle, and add the quantity in the foot-gores, bands, and pieces.
To find the quantity in the foot gores. Add the gores on one side of the sail together, and multiply the sum by half the number of gored cloths. EXAMPLE.
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SLOOP’S SAVE-ALL TOPSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, square on the head and foot, and made of canvas No. 8. The head is extended by haliards, fastened to its earing-cringles, in the upper part of the hollow foot of the top-sail, and the foot spreads the cross-jack-yard between the clues of the topsail. It is seldom used but in calm weather.
Two or three cloths only are left square for the head, and the rest are gored for the leeches. The cloth at each clue is so cut as to fall to the foot and form the clue-pieces; and the clues and earings are the same as those of other small sails. The bolt-rope, on the head, foot, and leeches, should be one inch in circumference. SLOOP’S GAFF TOPSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, and made of canvas No. 8. The fore-leech is four-fifths of the depth of the fore-leech of the mainsail, and is attached to the topgallant-mast: the head is bent to a small gaff or yard, by which it is hoisted to the top-gallantmast-head, and the foot spreads the gaff of the mainsail. This sail is only used in light breezes.
The depth of the gore on each cloth in the mast-leech is found, by dividing the depth of the leech by the number of cloths. The head is gored 6 or 8 inches per cloth, and the foot 6 or 8 inches per cloth: short gore to the clue, that the foot may answer the peek of the mainsail. The bolt-rope on the fore-leech should be one inch and a half in circumference; and, on the head, foot, and after-leech, one inch. The clue-rope, when any, should be two inches. rule to find the quantity of canvas in the sloop’s save-all topsail.
Add together the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the sum, to make it square; then multiply the number of square cloths by the depth, and add the quantity in the clue-pieces.
EXAMPLE FOR THE SAVE-ALL TOPSAIL.
3 cloths in the head.15 cloths in the foot. — 1/2)18 — 9 square cloths. 1 1/4 yards deep. — 15 1/4 yards in the sail. 1/4 yards in the pieces. — Total 16 1/2 yards. |
rule to find the quantity of canvas in the sloop’s gaff topsail.
Add together the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the sum, to make it square: add the depth of the fore and after-leeches together, and halve the same for a medium depth: then multiply the number of square cloths by the medium depth.
EXAMPLE FOR THE GAFF TOPSAIL.
2 cloths in the head.13 cloths in the foot. — 1/2)15 — 7 1/2 square cloths. 10 1/4 medium depth. — Total 76 3/8- yards. |
SLOOP’S TOPGALLANT-SAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, cut square on the head and foot, and made of canvas No. 8. It is bent on the head to the topgallant-yard, which hangs above the topsail-yard at right angles with the vessel’s length. The head spreads the topgallant-yard, and extends within six inches of the cleats; and the foot spreads to the cleats on the topsail-yard. This sail is from 3 to 5 yards deep; or the depth of the leeches of the topsail.
One or more cloths are gored on the leeches; and sometimes pieces, half a yard in length, are put on the aftside of the sail at the clues and earings. The bolt-rope on the foot and leeches should be one inch in circumference; and on the head three-quarters of an inch, or one inch. One inch of slack-cloth should be taken up with the rope in every cloth in the foot, and three-quarters of an inch in every yard in the leeches. SLOOP’S WATER-SAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, cut square on the head, and made of canvas No. 7. It is occasionally spread under the boom of the main-sail in fair winds. The leeches are either cut square, or have one gored cloth. The depth of this sail is from one-half to three-fourths of the length of the boom, and it is 4 or 5 cloths wide.
The bolt-rope, on the head, foot, and leeches, should be one inch and a half in circumference.
*** When sloops have lower-studding-sails, they are similar to the water-sail: the leeches are square, and they are one yard deeper than the leech of the cross-jack, or square sail.
Some ships have a water-sail, similar to a sloop’s water-sail.
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SLOOP’S FORE-SAIL.
This sail is triangular, made of canvas N. 1 or 2; and bends with hanks to the stay next before the mast. The depth of the leech is nearly the same as the depth of the fore-most-leech of the main-sail: and there are as many cloths in the foot as will bring it clear of the mast. The depth of the hoist, or fore-part, divided by the number of gored cloths, gives the length of each gore. The foot has a short gore of one inch per cloth, increasing to the clue; leaving 1 or 2 square cloths at the tack. The leech-cloth is left three-quarters of a yard longer than the depth of the leech, for the head-lining, and tabling; and the cloth at the tack is so cut as to fall to the foot and form its own lining. The seams should be 3 or 4 inches wide at the foot, and decreasing to one inch at the hoist. Two reef-bands, 4 inches broad, are generally put on at one-eighth of the depth of the sail asunder; the lower one being at that distance from the foot. Sometimes a bonnet is used instead of the lower-reef. The leech is lined with a breadth of cloth from the clue to half a yard above the upper reef-band, where it is cut half-way across; and, one-half of it being cut away, the other part is so continued about one yard higher. Sometimes small triangular pieces are sewed on at each hole in the hoist. The bolt-rope on the stay should be 2 inches and a half or 3 inches in circumference, and on the foot and leech one inch and a half or two inches. The clue-rope should be 3 inches. Three or four inches of slack-cloth should be taken up with the rope in every yard in the hoist. The hoist-rope is put through the holes in the head-stick; then served with spunyarn, and spliced into the leech-rope. The middle of the head-stick, is then seized to the head of the sail; and a thimble is seized in the bight of the rope. Thimbles are generally stuck in the cringles at the tack and clue. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Multiply half the number of cloths in the sails by the depth of the leech, and add the quantity in the foot-gores, bands, and pieces. To find the quantity in the foot-gores. Multiply the number of cloths by the depth of the gores when added together; and five-eighths of the product is the answer. EXAMPLE.
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Sloop's Topgallant Sail.
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Sloop's Jib.
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SLOOP’S JIB.
This sail is triangular, made of canvas No. 2 to 6, and is sometimes bent to hanks on the stay before the fore-sail. The depth of the leech is one yard for every cloth in the foot, and the foot is made wide enough to spread the bowsprit. The depth of the hoist, or fore-part, divided by the number of cloths gored, gives the length of each gore. The foot is gored with a sweep, at the rate of 5 to 6 inches per cloth, encreasing to the clue; leaving one square cloth at the tack. The leech-cloth is left three quarters of a yard longer than the depth of the leech, for the head-lining and tabling; the cloth at the tack is cut so as to fall to the foot and form its own lining; and the clue-piece is two yards in length. The seams on the foot should be 3 or 4. inches broad, and should decrease to one full inch on the hoist. If hoisted with a stay, the rope on the hoist should be 2 inches and a half or 3 inches in circumference; but if not hoisted with a stay, the rope on the hoist should be 5 inches. The rope on the foot and leeches should be 2 inches and a half, and the clue-rope 3 inches. Four or five inches of slack-cloth should be taken up in every yard in the hoist, when roping, and the rope on the hoist put through the holes in the head-stick; then served with spunyarn, and spliced into the leech-rope. The head-stick is seized round the middle to the head of the sail, and a thimble seized in the bight of the rope. Thimbles are generally stuck in the cringles at the tack and clue. This sail sometimes has a bonnet. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Multiply half the number of cloths in the sail by the depth of the leech, and add the quantity in the foot-gores and pieces. To find the quantity in the foot gores. Multiply the number of cloths by the depth of the gores when added together; and five-eights of the product is the answer. EXAMPLE.
Note. The sloop’s second jib is seven-eighths of the size of the first jib; and the third jib is three-fourths of the size of the first jib: but they are both made like the first jib, as above. |
SLOOP’S STORM JIB.
This sail is triangular, and made of canvas No. 1 or 2. It is two-thirds of the size of the first jib, and is used in stormy weather, in lieu of a larger one. The depth of the hoist, divided by the number of gored cloths in it, gives the length of each gore. The foot is gored at the rate of 5 or 6 inches per cloth, encreasing to the clue. The seams should be 3 or 4 inches broad at the foot, and should decrease to one inch on the hoist. The bolt-rope on the hoist, should be 5 inches in circumference, and on the foot and leech 2 inches and a half. The clue-rope should be 3 inches. Two strengthening bands of half a breadth of cloth are put on, parallel to the foot, at one-third of the depth of the sail asunder. The clue is lined with a breadth of cloth one yard and a half in length; a piece, one yard long, is put on at the peek; and the cloth at the tack is so cut as to fall to the foot and form its own lining. Thimbles are sometimes seized in the peek, tack, and clue. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Multiply half the number of cloths in the sail by the depth of the leech, and add the quantity is the bands, and pieces. To find the quantity in the foot-gores. Multiply the number of cloths by the depth of the gores when added together; and five-eighths of the product is the answer. EXAMPLE.
SLOOP’S FLYING JIB.
This sail is triangular, made of canvas No. 6, and is two thirds of the size of the first jib. It is the foremost sail, and hoists without a stay. The depth of the hoist, or fore-part, divided by the number of cloths, gives the length of each gore. The foot is gored with a sweep, at the rate of 8 or 9 inches per cloth, encreasing to the clue. The piece at the clue is one yard and a half in length; that at the peek is one yard; and the cloth at the tack is so cut as to fall to the foot and form its own lining. The seams should be two inches and a half broad at the foot, and should decrease to one inch at the hoist. The rope on the hoist should be 3 inches and a half in circumference; on the foot, two inches; and on the leech one inch. Three inches of slack-cloth should be taken up with the rope in every yard in the hoist. Thimbles are sometimes spliced in the tack, peek, and clue. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Multiply half the number cloths in the sail by the depth of the leech, and add the quantity in the pieces. To find the quantity in the foot gores. Multiply the number of cloths by the depth of the gores when added together; and five-eighths of the product is the answer. EXAMPLE.
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Sloop's Flying Jib.
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SLOOP’S RINGTAIL SAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, and made of canvas No. 7, or 8. It is occasionally hoisted abaft the after-leech of the main sail, to which the fore-leech is made to answer. The head is bent to a small yard at the outer end of the gaff; and the foot is spread on the boom, which is prolonged by a piece lashed to the outer end. The depth of the fore-leech, being divided by the number of cloths in it, gives the length of the gore on each cloth. The head has a regular gore to answer the peek of the mainsail, and the foot is gored with a gore of one inch per cloth, encreasing to the tack. The bolt-rope on the head, foot, and after-leech, should be one inch in circumference; and on the fore-leech, one inch and a half. * *** A sail of this kind, but more square, is sometimes extended in light winds, on a small mast, erected for that purpose on the upper part of the stern of some vessels; the foot being spread out by a boom that projects horizontally from the stern. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add together the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the sum to make it square: add the depth of the leeches together, and halve the sum for a medium depth, which multiplied by the number of square cloths gives the answer. EXAMPLE.
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SMACK’S MAINSAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, and made of canvas No. 1 or 2. The fore-leech is nearly of the depth of the mast from the under part of the hounds to the boom, and is attached to hoops which encircle the mast. The after-leech is about one-fifth deeper than the fore-leech. The head is bent to the gaff, and spreads within 12 inches of the cleats at the outer-end; and the foot is spread upon the boom, extending within 18 inches of the sheave-hole at the outer-end of it. The depth of the fore-leech, divided by the number of cloths to the mast, gives the length of the regular gore per cloth; but, if cut with a sweep, the gores must be regulated by judgement. The head is gored at the rate of 4 or 5 inches per cloth; and the foot with a circular sweep at the rate of 12 or 14 inches per cloth, for every cloth in the mast-leech, it having a short gore to the clue on 5 or 6 cloths, at the rate of 3 or 4 inches per cloth. The fore-leech is lined with a breadth of cloth from the tack to the nock; and the after-leech is lined with a breadth of cloth from the clue to 2 yards above the upper reef-band, where it is cut half way across; and, one part being cut away, the other is so continued about one yard higher. The peek is lined with a piece one yard and a half in length. The seams should be 4 inches broad 9 feet up from the foot, and 2 inches broad 6 feet down the seam from the head, the remainder of the seam should be one inch broad. Four reef-bands, from 6 to 8 inches broad, are put on parallel with the foot; the upper one is at three-sevenths of the depth of the fore-leech from the foot, and the others are at equal distances from the upper-one. Sometimes a balance-reef is put on from the nock to the upper reef-cringle on the after-leech. The bolt-rope on the mast-leech should be 3 inches in circumference, and on the head, foot, and after-leech, one inch and a half. The clue-rope should be 4 inches. And 4 inches of slack-cloth should be taken up with the rope in every yard in the mast-leech. Iron thimbles, are stuck in the cringles at the tack, nock, peek, and clue; in cringles made on each leech, at the ends of the reef-bands; and in a luff-cringle made on the fore-leech between the lower reef-cringle and the tack. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add together the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the sum to make it square: add the depth of the fore and after leeches together, and halve the product for a medium depth: then multiply the number of square cloths, by the medium depth, and add the quantity in the bands and pieces. To find the quantity of canvas in the foot-gores. Add together the gores from the tack to the first square cloth in the foot, and multiply half the sum by the number of cloths in the foot: then add together the gores from the clue to the first square cloth, and multiply half the sum by the number of cloths gored to the clue; which, subtracted from the product of the gores to the tack, gives the answer, EXAMPLE.
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Smack's Mainsail.
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Smack's Foresail.
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SMACK’S FORESAIL.
This sail is triangular, made of canvas No. 1 or 2, and bends with hanks to the stay next before the mast. The leech is of the same depth as the fore-leech of the mainsail, and there are as many cloths in the foot as will keep clear of the mast. The depth of the hoist, divided by the number of cloths, gives the length of the gore on each cloth. The foot is gored with a short gore, encreasing to the clue of one inch per cloth, leaving two or three square cloths at the tack. The leech-cloth is cut square at the upper end, and is so doubled as to form its own lining. The cloth at the tack is cut in the same manner. The leech is lined with a breadth of cloth from the clue to one yard and a half above-the upper reef-band, where it is cut half across; and one part being cut away, the other part is so continued about one yard higher. A broad tabling is generally made on the hoist, but sometimes small triangular pieces are put on at each hole instead of it. The seams should be 3 or 4 inches wide at the foot, and to decrease to one full inch at the hoists. Two reef-bands, 4 inches broad, are sometimes put on parallel to the foot, at about one-ninth of the depth of the leech, asunder; but a bonnet is more frequently used to this sail. The bolt-rope on the stay should be 2 inches and a half, or 3 inches in circumference, and on the foot and leech, one inch and a half or 2 inches. The clue-rope should be 2 inches and a half or 3 inches. Three or four inches of slack-cloth should be taken up with the rope in every yard in the hoists. Iron thimbles are generally stuck in the cringles at the tack and clue, and in the bight of the rope at the peek. Sometimes this sail has a head-stick. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Multiply the depth of the leech by half the number of cloths in the sail, and add the quantity in the foot-gores, bands, and linings. To find the quantity in the foot gores. Add together the gores on each cloth; multiply the sum by the number of cloths in the sail, and five-eighths of the product is the answer. EXAMPLE.
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SMACK’S JIB.
This sail is triangular, made of canvas No. 1 or 2, and generally hoists by haliards, without a stay, next before the fore-sail. The foot is made to spread the bowsprit, and the depth of the leech is from three-quarters of a yard to one yard for every cloth in the foot. The depth of the hoists, or fore part, divided by the number of cloths, gives the length of each gore. The fourth and fifth cloths from the tack are cut square on the foot, and the cloths each way from them are gored with a sweep, at one inch per cloth, encreasing to the tack and clue. The upper end of the leech-cloth is cut square, and is doubled back to form its own lining. The tack and clue are lined with a breadth of cloth two yards in length. When this sail is made to hoist with a stay, it either has small triangular pieces put on at each hole in the hoists, or a broad tabling. The seams should be 3 or 4 inches wide at the foot, and to decrease to one full inch at the hoist. The rope on the stay should be 5 inches in circumference, and that on the foot and leech, 2 inches. Four or five inches of slack-cloth should be taken up with the rope in every yard in the hoists. Thimbles are stuck in the cringles at the tack and clue; and one is seized in the bight of the rope at the peek, which is seized with spunyarn. This sail sometimes has a head-stick. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Multiply the depth of the leech by half the number of cloths in the sail: and add the quantity in the foot-gores, and pieces. To find the quantity in the foot-gores. Add together the gores on each cloth to the clue; multiply the sum by the number of cloths in the sail, and five-eighths of that product is the answer. EXAMPLE.
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THE FOLLOWING SAILS ARE SOMETIMES, THOUGH BUT VERY SELDOM, USED, AND ARE NOT USUALLY MADE IN THE GENERAL PRACTICE.
SKY-SCRAPERS. These sails are triangular, and made of canvas No. 8. The foot spreads half of the royal-yards, and each sail has half the number of cloths in the foot, as are in the head of its respective royal-sail. The peek is hoisted by a haliard to the truck on the mast-head. To find the quantity of canvas: multiply half the number of cloths by the depth. ROYAL STAYSAILS are quadrilateral, and made of canvas No. 8. They are the same as a topgallant-staysails, only with one or two cloths less, and are hoisted next above them. The rule for finding the quantity of canvas is the same as that for the topgallant-staysails. STORM MIZEN. This sail is triangular, and similar to a fore-topmast-staysail. It is made of canvas No. 2 or 3, and bends on the fore part to a horse, abaft and parallel to the mizen-mast. The foot is extended towards the taffarel by a sheet. To find the quantity of canvas, multiply half the number of cloths by the depth. SPRITSAIL-TOPGALLANT-SAIL is quadrilateral, cut square on the head, and is similar to the spritsail-topsail. It is made of canvas No. 8, and is bent on the head, to the spritsail-topgallantsail-yard, which hangs at right angles under the outer end of the jib-boom. The foot spreads the spritsail-topsail-yard, and contains the same number of cloths in it as the head of the spritsail-topsail. One or two cloths are gored on each leech. The rule to find the quantity of canvas is the same as that for the spritsail-topsail. WINGSAIL FOR KETCHES. This sail is quadrilateral, and similar to the mizen-course of a ship. It is made of canvas No. 6 or 7, and bends abaft the main-mast to hoops which encircle the mast. The head is extended by a gaff. The rule to find the quantity of canvas is the same as that for the mizen-course of a ship. |
BOAT’S SETTEE SAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, and made of canvas No. 7 or 8. The head is bent to a latteen-yard, which hangs obliquely to the mast at one-third of its length, and extends within 6 inches of the cleats. The cloth at the tack is cut goring to the nock, and the bunt is of the depth of the reef; which is one-fifth of the depth of the leech. The leech is five-sixths of the length of the head. The length of the head, divided by the number of cloths in it, gives the length of each gore. The foot is cut with a circular sweep, after the sail is sewed together. Two small holes are made in each cloth along the head; and holes are made across the sail, on each seam, at one-fifth of the depth of the leech from the foot, for the reef. A small reef-cringle is made on the after-leech-rope, and cringles are made at the nock and peek. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add together the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the sum to reduce it square: add the depth of the bunt and depth of the leech together, and halve the sum for a medium depth; which, multiplied by half the number of square cloths, gives the answer. EXAMPLE.
BOAT’S LATTEEN SAIL.
This sail is triangular, and made of canvas No. 7 or 8. It is so called from its head being bent to the latteen-yard, which hangs obliquely to the mast at one-third of its length, extending within 6 inches of the cleats. The length of the head, divided by the number of cloths, gives the length of the gore on each cloth. The foot is cut square. Two small holes are made in each cloth along the head, through which the lacings are reeved.
*** This sail, when the head of it (then called the fore-leech) is laced to a mast and topmast, is called a sliding-gunter-sail; the topmast being made to slide down the mast by means of hoops. It is likewise called a shoulder-of-mutton-sail, when laced by the fore-leech to a single mast. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Multiply half the number of cloths by the length of the head. EXAMPLE.
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Sky-Scraper.
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BOAT’S LUG SAIL.
This sail is quadrilateral, and made of canvas No. 7 or 8. The head is bent to a yard, which hangs obliquely to the mast at one third of its length, and extends within 4 inches of the cleats. Two or three cloths are gored on the fore-leech, and an even gore of 6 inches per cloth is made on the head. The foot is gored with a sweep; the cloth at the clue being cut with a 3-inch short gore, the next cloth is square, and the cloths from thence to the tack are gored at the rate of 6 or 8, inches per cloth. The fore-leech is as deep as the length of the head, and the after-leech is longer than the fore-leech by nearly half the depth of the fore-leech. Two small holes are made in each cloth in the head. This sail has two reefs parallel with the foot, the upper one is half way up the fore-leech, and the other is equally distant from that and the foot. Sometimes reef-bands 3 or 4 inches broad are put on at the reefs, but when these are not used, a small hole is made in every seam instead of them. Small cringles are made on the leeches at each reef; earing-cringles are made at the nock and peek; and 10 or 12 strands in the length of the rope are seized at the tack and clue. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Add together the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the sum to make it square: add the depth of the leeches together, and halve the sum for a medium depth: then multiply the number of square cloths by the medium depth, and add the quantity in the foot-gores and reef-bands. To find the quantity in the foot-gores. Multiply the number of gored cloths to the tack by the foot-gore on the cloth next the tack. EXAMPLE.
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BOAT’S SPRITSAILS.
There sails are quadrilateral, and made of canvas No. 7 or 8, the fore-leeches are attached to their respective masts by lacings, reeved through holes made in them; and the heads are elevated and extended by sprits, or small yards, that cross the sail diagonally from the mast to the peek; the lower end of the sprit, rests in a wreath or collar of rope called a snotter, which encircles the mast at the foot of the sail. The fore-leeches of the main and fore sprit-sails are the depth of the mast within 12 inches of the gunwale, and have one or two gored-cloths. The heads of them have an even gore of 12 or 14 inches per cloth. The fore-leech of the mizen sprit-sail is the depth of the mast, so as to clear the gunwale; and is square. The head has an even gore of 11 inches per cloth. Small holes are made in the fore-leeches: those in the main and fore sprit-sails are one yard, and those in the mizen are three-quarters of a yard asunder. Holes are also made in the seams, across the sail, at one-fifth of the depth of the after-leech from the foot, for the reef. Ten or 12 turns or twists of the strands in the length of the rope is seized, to form bights, at the tack, nock, peek, and clue. rule to find the quantity of canvas in spritsails.
Add together the number of cloths in the head and foot, and halve the sum to make it square: add the depth of the leeches together, and halve the sum for a medium depth; then multiply the number of square cloths by the medium depth. EXAMPLES.
BOAT’S FORESAIL.
This sail is triangular, and made of canvas No. 8. The leech is of the same depth as the fore-leech of the fore-spritsail, and the foot is made wide enough to spread from the stem to the mast. The depth of the fore-part, or hoist, divided by the number of cloths, gives the length of each gore. The foot is cut square. Two inches of slack-cloth should be taken up with the rope in every yard in the depth of the hoist. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Multiply half the number of cloths in the sail by the depth of the leech. EXAMPLE.
1 1/2 half the number of cloths. |
Boat's Sprit Sails and Jib.
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BOAT’S JIB.
This sail is triangular, and made of canvas No. 8. The leech is of the same depth as the leech of the fore-sail, and the foot is as wide as the length of the bowsprit. The depth of the fore part, or hoist, divided by the number of cloths, gives the length of each gore. The foot is cut with a sweep, at the rate of 6 or 7 inches per cloth, with a short gore to the clue. Two inches of slack-cloth should be taken up with the rope in every yard in the hoist. rule to find the quantity of canvas in this sail.
Multiply half the number of cloths by the depth of the leech. To find the quantity in the foot-gores. Multiply the gores, when added together, by the number of cloths; and five-eighths of the product is the answer. EXAMPLE.
OBSERVATIONS.
In order to strengthen sails, it has been recommended to have the holes in the heads and reefs placed thus: one hole to be made in the seam, another in the middle of the canvas, and so on alternately; the hole in the seam to be half an inch lower than the hole in the middle of the canvas. By this the strain would lie upon the holes in the seam, which are more capable of bearing it than those holes which are in the single canvas. It is likewise recommended to cut these holes with a hollow punch, instead of making them with a stabber or pricker |
AWNINGS.
Awnings are made of canvas No. 1 or 2. The length of the main-deck awning is from the centre of the fore-mast to the centre of the main-mast. The width is shaped agreeably to the breadths of the ship, taken at the main-mast, the fore-mast, and at the midway between. The length of the quarter-deck awning is from the centre of the main-mast to the centre of the mizen-mast. The width is shaped agreeably to the breadths of the ship, taken at the main-mast, the mizen-mast, and at the midway between. The length of the poop or after-awning is from the centre of the mizen-mast to the ensign-staff, about seven feet above the deck. The width is shaped agreeably to the breadths of the ship, taken at the mizen-mast, the taffarel, and at the midway between. Vessels in harbour, particularly in the royal navy, have uprights, (instead of masts); one fixed at the break of the quarter-deck, one at the forecastle, and one at the knightheads forward. The lengths and breadths are taken as before, only at those uprights instead of at the masts. The canvas is cut out to the given breadths of the awning, allowing about nine inches to hang down on each side, which is sometimes scalloped and bound with green baize, and is sewed together with an inch seam, and tabled all round with a two or three inch tabling. Half the diameter of the masts is cut out in the middle at each end, and lacing-holes are made across the ends to connect one awning to another. On the upper part, along the middle and sides, is sewed one inch and half or two inch rope, to which the trucks are sewed at about three-quarters of a yard asunder. A thimble is spliced in each end of the rope. Sometimes curtains are made to hang to the sides of the awnings, of the same length as the awnings. Their depth is taken from the sides of the awning to the gunwale, supposing the awning to be in its place. The seams and tablings are the same as those of the awnings, and lacing-holes are made along the upper tabling of the curtain, and the side tabling of the awning. rule to find the quantity of canvas in awnings.
Multiply the number of cloths by the medium breadth. The medium breadth is found by adding together the three breadths, and dividing the sum by three. To find the quantity in the curtains. Multiply the number of cloths by the length. EXAMPLE.
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Awnings, Windsails, &c.
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QUARTER-CLOTHS.
Quarter-cloths are made of canvas No. 1 or 2. They are extended from the rough-tree-rail of the quarter-deck to the plank-sheer. The length is taken from the aft-part of the stern, along the rough-tree-rail upon the quarter, to the haunch, or where the rail ends: the depths are taken from the rail to the plank-sheer, at the fore part of the rail, at the taffarel, and at the midway between. They contain in general two whole cloths, and one gored cloth which is always placed at the lower part. The seams are one inch broad, and a two or three inch tabling is made all round. rule to find the quantity of canvas in quarter-cloths.
Multiply the number of whole cloths by the length, and add the quantity in the gored cloth. To find the quantity in the gored cloth. Take the breadth of the gored-cloth at the ends and in the middle; add them together, and divide their sum by three for a medium breadth. Then multiply that medium breadth by the length of the cloth. EXAMPLE.
MAST-COATS.
Mast-coats are made of canvas No. 1 or 2, to fit round the mast and hole in the deck. When fixed, they have the shape of a cone. Girth the mast about 18 inches above the deck, and girth round the deck three inches from the mast-hole. This gives the circumference at top and bottom. The length is obtained by measuring strait the distance between the places girthed. Divide the lower girths into an equal number of parts, suitably to the width of the canvas, allowing for the seams, which are one inch wide. The cloths must be gored upwards, to produce the circumference of the mast at the top-girth, and, when sewed together, cut with a sweep to set neatly round the mast. The upper part is then sewed into a double canvas collar, six inches wide. rule to find the quantity of canvas in mast-coats.
Multiply the number of cloths by the length, and add the quantity in the collar. EXAMPLE.
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RUDDER-COATS.
Rudder-coats are made of canvas No. 1 or 2, to fit round the rudder and the hole in the counter. Girth the circumference of the rudder-hole; then round the rudder and part of the stern-post about four feet below the counter, This gives the width at top and bottom. The length is obtained by measuring the distance between the places girdled. Divide the upper girths into an equal number of breadths, suitably to the canvas, allowing for the seams. The cloths are gored downwards with a small sweep, that the coat may bag, and not set too tight when fixed. The seams are one inch wide, and a two or three inch tabling is made all round. rule to find the quantity of canvas in a rudder-coat.
Multiply the number of cloths by the length of the coat. EXAMPLE.
WINDSAIL, OR VENTILATOR.
The windsail or ventilator is made of canvas No. 1 or 2. It is used for circulating fresh air between deck; and is in the form of a cylinder. Four breadths are sewed together, and the outer selvages joined, with an inch seam, leaving one cloth four feet short of the top. A three inch tabling goes round the top and bottom. It is kept distended by circular hoops, made of ash, sewed to the inside; one at top, and one at every six feet distance. The upper part, or top, is covered with canvas, and a small rope sewed round the edge; into which are spliced, at the quarters, the ends of two pieces of rope, that are sewed up to the middle, and an eye formed by seizing the bights. The length of a windsail is taken nine feet above the deck to three or four feet below the lower hatchway. rule to find the quantity of canvas in the ventilator.
Multiply the number of cloths by the length. EXAMPLE.
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PARLIAMENTARY REGULATIONS RELATIVE TO SAILS AND SAIL-CLOTH.
THE manufacturing of sails and sail-cloth has attracted the attention of the legislature. Regulations have been established and encouragements given, from time to time, for the maker of sail-cloth as well as for the sail-maker. The act of the 7 and 8 William III. c. 10. § 14 enacts, "That so much of English sail-cloth as shall be found fit for the service of his majesty’s navy, shall have the preference of all foreign sail-cloth; and the commissioners of the navy are directed and required, from time to time, to contract and agree for such English-made sail-cloth, and to allow the makers and manufacturers thereof a recompence of two-pence per yard for the same above what they pay for foreign cloth of equal strength and goodness." The acts, however, that materially affect this subject, are the 9 Geo. II. c. 37. and the 19 Geo. II c. 27. both of which, though originally made to continue for severn years only, have been found so beneficial, that they have been continued, and still do regulate this branch of naval manufacture. We have therefore subjoined correct abstracts of both. Abstracts of "An act for further encouraging and regulating the manufacture of British sail-cloth, and for the more effectual securing the duties now payable on foreign sail-cloth imported into this kingdom.
"All foreign-made sail-cloth or canvas, usually entered as hollands, duck, or vitry canvas, fit for the making of sails, and imported into Great Britain by way of merchandize, for which any duties are payable, shall be stamped at the time of the landing thereof, in the port where the same shall be imported or landed. "The commissioners of the customs shall provide stamps for all foreign-made sail cloth or canvas imported, with which, after the duty is paid, it shall be stamped; and for that purpose the commissioners shall cause stamps to be distributed to the proper officers of the customs, at every port where such foreign-made sail-cloth or canvas shall be imported; which officers are required to stamp every such piece or parcel of foreign-made sail-cloth or canvas: the stamp denote the place or country from whence the said cloth or canvas shall be imported; and the commissioners in providing the stamps shall take care that they be so contrived that the impression may be durable, and so as the same may be the least liable to be counterfeited; and the said stamps may be altered or renewed, from time to time, as his majesty shall think fit; and if any person counterfeit or forge any such stamp or impression upon any foreign made sail-cloth, then such person so offending, and duly convicted thereof, shall forfeit the sum of fifty pounds; and if any person shall sell, or expose to sale, any such foreign made sail-cloth with a counterfeit stamp thereon, knowing the same to be counterfeit, such offender shall forfeit the sum of fifty pounds. And for the better ascertaining and distinguishing the sail-cloth of the British manufacture from foreign sail-cloth, every manufacturer of sail-cloth in Great-Britain shall affix or impress, or cause to be affixed or impressed, on every piece of sail-cloth by him manufactured, a stamp, containing the name and place of abode of such manufacturer, in plain distinct letters and words at length; and if |
any manufacturer of sail-cloth, or other person, shall sell or expose to sale, or work up into sails, any piece or bolt of British sail-cloth without being stamped as aforesaid, such manufacturer or other person so offending, and being thereof lawfully convicted upon the oath of one or more credible witness or witnesses before any justice of the peace for the place where the offence be committed, shall forfeit the sum of ten pounds for every piece of sail-cloth by him or them sold or exposed to sale, or worked up into sails, not being so stamped; and if any person shall wilfully or maliciously cut off, destroy, or obliterate, any stamp so affixed, (except in the tarring or working up the same,) or shall affix or impress any stamp, on which shall be stamped the name or place of abode of any other person, and not his or their real name or names and place or places of abode, such person, being convicted of any of the said offences, shall, for every offence, forfeit the sum of five pounds; which last mentioned forfeiture shall be levied and recovered by distress, and sale of the offender’s goods and chattels, by warrant under the hands and seals of two or more justices of the peace for the place where the offence shall be committed, and shall be applied to the use of the informer or informers.And, for encouraging the use and consumption of the manufacture of British sail-cloth, every ship or vessel which shall be built in Great-Britain, and every ship or vessel which shall be built in any of his majesty’s plantations in America, shall, upon her first setting out to sea, have or be furnished with one full and compleat set of sails made up of sail-cloth manufactured in Great-Britain; and in case such ship shall not, on her first setting out, be so fitted out and furnished, that then, and for every such neglect and default, the master of such ship shall forfeit the sum of fifty pounds.No sail-maker, or other person, in this kingdom, shall make up into sails or tarpawlins any foreign-made sail-cloth or canvas, not stamped according to the directions of this act; and in case any person shall make or work up into sails or tarpawlins any foreign-made sail-cloth or canvas, other, than as aforesaid, such sails and tarpawlins shall be forfeited; and such sail-maker, &c. shall likewise forfeit the sum of twenty pounds.All sail-cloth made in Great-Britain shall be manufactured in the manner and according to the directions hereinafter mentioned, viz. every piece or bolt of British sail-cloth, that shall be 24 inches in breadth and thirty-eight yards in length, shall weigh according to the numbers and weights here mentioned; viz. No. 1, 44 pounds each bolt; No. 2, 41; No. 3, 38; No. 4, 35; No. 5, 32; No. 6, 29; No. 7, 24; No. 8, 21; No. 9, 18; and No. 10, 15 pounds each bolt.And in case any piece or bolt of either of such respective numbers or sorts of British sail-cloth shall be made of a different breadth or length than before mentioned, such piece or bolt of British sail-cloth shall be encreased or diminished in weight, in proportion to the difference in such length or breadth, and shall be marked or stamped with such number as shall be agreeable to the weight; and the warp or chain of every piece or bolt of the first six numbers of such British sail-cloth shall be wholly wrought and made of double yarn, and shall contain, in every piece or bolt of 24 inches in breadth, at least 560 double threads of yarn, and in every piece of such sail-cloth, that shall be 30 inches in breadth, at least 700 double threads of yarn; and in every bolt of such sail-cloth, that shall be of any other breadths than as aforesaid, a certain number or quantity of double threads of yarn, in proportion to the number of double threads of yarn expressed to be contained in the breadth, as aforesaid; and the warp and shoot yarn, which shall be wrought in every piece or bolt of the first four numbers of such sail-cloth, be made of long flax, without any mixture of short or bar flax; or of long flax, or Italian hemp, or Braak hemp; and all the flax and hemp used in making the warp and shoot yarn of such sail-cloth, of the aforesaid four first numbers, shall be of a strong staple, fresh, sound, and |
good in its kind, and well dressed; and the yarn well cleansed, even spun and well twisted; and all the shoot yarn of each piece of sail-cloth of the four first numbers shall be full as strong as the warp yarn, and close struck with four shoots of treble threads at the distance of every two feet or thereabouts; and both the warp and shoot yarn shall be as strong as the warp and shoot yarn that are usually wrought in the sail-cloth of those four first numbers that are made for and used in his majesty’s navy: and no flax yarn used in any British sail-cloth shall be whitened with lime, on forfeiture of six-pence per yard for every yard that shall be so whitened, made, sold, or worked up into new sails, in Great-Britain, any ways essentially different, lighter, or inferior in strength and goodness to any of the aforesaid directions or restrictions.Every sail-maker or other person, who shall make or work up sail-cloth into sails or tarpawlins, shall cause this act, or an abstract thereof, to be put up or affixed, there to continue, in some public part of the loft, shop, or workhouse, where his said trade is carried on, or his workmen employed, under the penalty of forty shillings.Abstract of "An act for the more effectual securing the duties now payable on foreign-made sail-cloth imported into this kingdom; for charging all foreign-made sails with a duty; and for explaining a doubt concerning ships being obliged at their first setting out to sea to be furnished with one compleat set of sails made of British sail-cloth."" Every master of any ship or vessel belonging to any of his majesty’s subjects, navigated with any foreign-made sail or sails, or who shall have any foreign-made sail or sails on-board his ship or vessel, shall, at the time of making his entry or report of such ship or vessel at the Custom-House, make a report upon oath of all foreign-made sails used in or being on-board such ship or vessel; and he shall, before such ship or vessel is cleared by the officers of the customs inwards, where such ship makes any discharge of her lading, pay the same duties as are payable for all foreign-made sails imported by way of merchandize.Every such sail shall be stamped at the port where such ship makes her entry in manner herein-after mentioned; and in case the master of such ship shall not make the said entry, and pay such duty before the ship shall be cleared by the officers of the customs, such sails shall be forfeited, and the master shall for every offence forfeit the sum of fifty pounds, one moiety thereof to the use of his majesty, and the other moiety to the person who shall sue for the same. Provided always, if the master of such ship shall, after his report made, and before the ship is cleared by the officers of the customs, declare his intention of not paying the said duty, and shall deliver to the officer of the customs of the port, where he makes such report, the sails for which he has declared his intention of not paying the said duty; in such case the sails are hereby declared to be forfeited to his majesty; and such master shall not be subject or liable to pay the said duty or penalty of fifty pounds. Provided always, that nothing herein contained shall be deemed, construed, adjudged, or taken, to charge or make liable any captain or master of any ship coming from the East-Indies, with any of the duties or forfeitures aforesaid, for or upon account of such ship being navigated with, or having onboard, any foreign-made sail or sails, which shall be by such captain or master brought from the East-Indies. All foreign-made sail-cloth or canvas, usually entered as hollands, duck, or vitry canvas, fit to be made use of for the making of sails, which shall be imported into Great-Britain, by way of merchandize, and upon the importation whereof any duties are made payable, shall be stamped at the time |
of the landing thereof, at or in the port or place where the same shall be imported, as hereafter mentioned.And whereas the stamps used in pursuance of the former act are of too small dimensions, and make a very obscure mark and impression, liable to be soon defaced and become undistinguishable, it is enacted, that the commissioners of the customs shall provide stamps of 8 inches diameter each, for the stamping of all foreign-made sails and foreign-made sail-cloth, and shall cause the said stamps to be distributed amongst proper officers of the customs, of every port in Great-Britain; and the officers of every port are hereby required to stamp all foreign-made sails, and foreign-made sail-cloth, which shall be imported into the several ports where they reside; and which stamps shall, in order to make the impression durable, be dipped in a liquor made of red-lead, mixed with linseed oil well boiled; and the stamp or impression therewith made shall express and denote the place and port in which such sails and foreign-made sail-cloth are entered; and the commissioners, in providing the stamps, shall take care that they be so contrived, that the impression may be plain and durable, and so as the same may be the least liable to be counterfeited: and if any person shall counterfeit or forge any stamp provided in pursuance of this act, upon any foreign-made sail-cloth, or foreign-made sails, or shall sell such sail-cloth with counterfeited or forged stamps, knowing the same to be forged, then such person so offending shall forfeit the sum of fifty pounds.No sail-maker or other person, within Great-Britain or in his majesty’s plantations in America, shall make up into sails or tarpawlins any foreign-made sail-cloth not stamped according to this act; and in case any person shall make up into sails or tarpawlins, any foreign sail-cloth other than as aforesaid, such sails and tarpawlins shall be forfeited; and every person so offending, and being thereof lawfully convicted, upon the oath of one or more credible witnesses, before one or more justices of the peace, for the place where the offence shall be committed, shall forfeit the sum of fifty pounds, for every such sail or tarpawlin; which penalty of fifty pounds shall be levied and recovered by distress and sale of the offender’s goods and chattels, by warrant under the hands and seals of two or more justices of the peace for the place where the offence shall be committed, and shall go and be applied to the use of the informers; and for want of such distress, such justices may commit such person to gaol for the space of six months, or until he pays the penalty of fifty pounds.Every person who shall make up into sails any foreign-made sail-cloth, shall place the stamps affixed or impressed on such foreign sail-cloth in the most conspicuous part of such sails, (that is to say,) on the after-side of such sails, and in such manner, that the number of stamps in every sail may appear proportionably to the number of bolts or pieces contained in the said sail; and in case any person shall make up any foreign-made sail-cloth or canvas, into sails, in any other manner than as aforesaid, such sails shall be forfeited, and such person shall for every offence forfeit the sum of ten pounds.No person whatsoever shall alter, repair, or mend, any sails, made of foreign-made sail-cloth, not stamped according to this act; and in case any person shall alter, repair, or mend, any sails not stamped as aforesaid, such person shall, for every sail so mended, forfeit the sum of twenty pounds. Every sail-maker in Great-Britain, and in his majesty’s plantations in America, affix or impress, or cause to be affixed or impressed, on every new sail by him so made, a stamp, 8 inches in diameter, containing the name and place of abode of such sail-maker in plain distinct letters and words at length; and which said stamp, in order to make the impression durable, shall be dipped in a liquid made with lamp-black, mixed with linseed-oil well boiled; and in case any person shall make any new sail, and shall deliver the same to any captain or master of any ship or vessel, not being stampt |
with his name and place of abode, such sail shall be forfeited; and every person shall, for every sail by him so delivered, not stamped, forfeit the sum of ten pounds.And whereas doubts have arisen about the meaning of a clause in the preceding act, of the ninth year of his present majesty’s reign, by which ships are obliged at their first setting out, or being first navigated at sea, to be furnished with one full and compleat set of sails made of sail-cloth manufactured in Great-Britain: to obviate such doubts for the future, it is enacted, that every ship or vessel built in Great-Britain, or in his majesty’s plantations in America, shall upon her first setting out, or being first navigated, be furnished with one compleat set of new sails, (bona fide belonging to such ship or vessel) made of sail-cloth manufactured in Great-Britain; and in case such ship or vessel shall not, on her first setting our, be furnished with a new set of sails made of sail-cloth of the manufacture of Great-Britain as aforesaid, that, for every such default, the master of such ship or vessel shall forfeit the sum of fifty pounds.It has been subsequently enacted by the 33 Geo. III. c. 49. that no part of the penalties, contained in the 9 Geo. II. c. 37. which do not attach to double sail cloth, shall extend to British canvas made with single thread warps, corded or not corded, and fit for or made into sails. And that such single canvas shall be deemed British sail cloth, and be equally entitled, with double canvas, to the bounties. Provided that the said single thread sail cloth be made of equally good materials, and be conformable, in weight and all other things, to the restrictions on double thread sail cloth. DUTIES PAYABLE UPON THE IMPORTATION OF SAIL CLOTH.
It is the practice of Government to mark each bolt or piece of canvas, before it is made up into sails, with a blue streak down the middle; made with a composition of linseed oil, white lead, and ground indigo, well boiled together. By the 9 and 10 Wm. III. c. 41. Any person in whose possession any canvas with the blue streak up the middle, being the king’s mark, is found, without a certificate of its having been purchased of the commissioners of the navy, forfeits the property, and is liable to the penalty of £200 with costs of suit. By the 9 Geo. I. c. 8. The judge, before whom such offender is convicted, is empowered to mitigate the penalty, commit until the same be paid, or order corporal punishment, by being publickly whipped; or kept to hard labour for a time, not exceeding six months. The commissioners of his majesty’s navy by the 1st. of Geo. I. c. 15. are empowered, for embezzlement of the king’s stores under the value of 20s. to fine the offender, not exceeding double the value taken; or to imprison, not exceeding three months. |
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IN the merchant-service, the masting of ships often depends upon the fancy of the builder or owner; of course, the dimensions of the sails must correspondently vary. It would not, therefore, have been attended with great utility, if we had given the dimensions of sails to merchant-ships of particular tonnages; because some sails house more than others, and their heads are of very different lengths. They will be best obtained by following the directions for the making of each sail, as given before in this treatise. It has been suggested, by a very experienced sail-maker, that much advantage would frequently result to the naval service, if many of the sails of ships were made of equal size; so that, in cases of necessity, they might be interchangeably used. Thus, the mizen-top-sail being, at present, nearly the size of the main-top-gallant sail, there seems no reason why the yards, masts, and, of course, the sails, should not be made to suit each other. The main and fore top-sails only differ, in general, 1 cloth, or about 2 feet, at head and foot, and in depth from 1 to 3 feet: the masts, yards, and sails, might here be made alike; as, indeed, is generally the practice in brigs, and was first introduced in the North-country trade. The main and fore top-gallant-sails differ very little in depth, and only 1 cloth, or about 2 feet, at head and foot: these might easily be made alike. The mizen top-gallant-sail and main and fore royal might be brought to the same Dimensions. The mainsail and foresail might be made alike as to their head; but, as the mainsail has a gore at the leech and a larger gore at the foot, in order to clear it of the gallows, boats, &c. which the foresails has not, it may be more difficult to arrange them; but, if much convenience is found in the sails named above, this might be obviated in time. The number of sails in a vessel take up considerable room; they are put all together, in a sail-room or cabbin, and create confusion in getting out; and, in the event of losing sails by stress of weather, and in long voyages, the above alterations might be very useful. The spare yards and masts on-board a ship might hence be reduced in number; and, if attention were paid, in the lower-masts, to captain Pakenham’s plan, there seldom seems a case where a vessel, meeting damage at sea in her masts, yards, sails, or rigging, might not be repaired without going into harbour. Topmast studding-sails, as well as lower studding-sails, are occasionally substituted for awnings; they might, by a very little attention in planning the rigging of a ship, be made so as to answer both uses. Probably These hints would be attended with more advantage in the merchant-service than in the royal navy, because a merchant-ship is not often so plentifully stored with spare sails as ships of the British navy. |
BLOCK-MAKING. |
Blocks Pl. 1.
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Blocks Pl. 2: Tools for Block Making.
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DESCRIPTION AND USE OF BLOCKS.
THE PLATES OF BLOCKS WILL, UPON REFERENCE, CLEARLY ELUCIDATE THIS TREATISE ON BLOCKMAKING.
BLOCKS are well known mechanical instruments, possessing the properties and powers of pullies. These powerful instruments have from 1 to 8 sheaves. The blocks in general use are, the single block, the double block, the treble block, and the fourfold block; but, when heavy weights or bodies are required to be raised or moved, blocks with a greater number of sheaves are applied, the increasing power being as two to one for every sheave moving with the object. Blocks differing from the common shape, are the bee-block, (which is made by the mast-maker,) the cheek-block, the long-tackle-block, the main-sheet-block, the monkey-block, the nine-pin-block, the rack-block, the shoe-block, the shoulder-block, the sister-block, the snatch-block, the strap-bound-block, the viol-block, and the warping-block. To the blocks may be added the dead eyes, hearts, parrels, trucks, uphroes, cleats, belaying-pins, toggles, thimbles, travellers, bull’s eyes, &c. these being all furnished by block-makers. The principal parts of blocks are their shells, sheaves, and pins, which are of various sizes and powers, according to the effect they are to produce. The dimensions of the shells, and the thickness and number of the sheaves, are proportioned to the size of the ropes working in them, and the powers required: the sheaves turn abreast of each other in the shell, on one axis or pin, or one above another, on separate pins. The shell is made of elm or ash, and hollowed between the cheeks, with one or more sheave-holes to receive the sheave or sheaves. On the outside of the cheeks of blocks that are to be strapped, one score is cut, towards the ends, in which part of the strap is buried; if they are double-strapped, they have two scores. A hole is bored through the centre to admit the pin; which, passing through both sides of the shell, forms the axis for the sheaves. The sheave is a solid cylindrical wheel, and round its circumference is a groove one-third of the thickness of the sheave deep, in which the rope works. It is commonly made of lignum-vitae; but when for very laborious purposes, it is coaked in the middle with metal, or else made of cast metal: if the sheave is iron, it is coaked with brass, and if of brass, with the hardest bell-metal. The hole in the centre is something larger than the pin. The pin is made of lignum-vitae, cocous, green-heart, or iron, and is the axis on which the sheaves turn. |
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DESCRIPTION OF THE TOOLS, AND EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS, USED IN BLOCK-MAKING.
ARSE of a block. The end through which the fall reeves. AUGER. An iron instrument to bore holes with; it consists of a shank, having at, one end a bit, and at the other end an eye to admit a handle, by which it is worked. BEARDING. Reducing the thickness on the sides or edges. BIT. An iron instrument resembling the shank of a gimblet, from 6 to 12 inches long, and from of 1/2 an inch to 1 inch diameter, and has at its end either a screw, a sharp point, or edge, to cut or bore holes with. BOX of a rib-saw. Two thin iron plates fixed to a wooden handle; in one of the iron plates is an opening to receive a wedge, by which it is fixed to the saw. BRAKE. An instrument to confine blocks while boring the hole through the sheave: it is formed of a piece of elm plank, 3 inches thick, about 13 inches broad, and 3 feet long, in which, near one end, are two pegs 2 inches and a half square fixed in mortise holes. Two inches from the side edge, towards the other end, is a double row of holes; to one of these holes a brake is attached by a wooden pin, which brake is 2 inches thick, 20 inches long, and 4 inches broad at one end, and tapering to a handle at the other. It is used as a lever, by pressing against it with the knee, and thereby confining the block. BREAST of a block. The opposite end to that which reeves the fall. BURR. A triangular hollow chissel, used to clear the corners of mortises. CAP. A semi-circular projection from the sides and round-the end of a block above the pin; through it two holes are bored, obliquely from the sides, which meet and form an angle at the end; through these holes the strap is passed, to prevent its being chafed. CHAMFERING. Taking off, or flatting sharp edges. CENTRE-BIT. A bit, having in the middle of its end a small steel point, with a sharp edge on one side to cut horizontally, and a sharp tooth on the opposite side to cut vertically. Holes bored with this instrument are not liable to split. CHEEKS of a block. The two sides of the shell. CHISSELS. Sharp edged tools, made of iron and steel, of different lengths and breadths. CHOCKS. Cylindrical pieces of wood or iron, screw-cut at one end, to screw into the end of a mandrel; some at the other end have a sort of peg to be driven into the work, which is retained by the assistance of an opposite centre: some chocks have, instead of a wooden peg, three pieces of iron in the end; this sort is chiefly used for broad thin work, without an opposite centre. Iron chocks are screw-cut, similar to wooden ones, and have a box at the end, into which the work is driven and retained with, or without, an opposite centre; in the sides of the box are holes to admit a punch, to punch out the work. |
Explanation of the construction & use of the
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CLAVE. A stool 14 inches high, made of elm, and supported by 4 legs; the top 6 feet long, 2 or 3 feet wide, and 8 inches thick at each end, and only 4 inches thick in the middle, in which the shells are set up with wedges for making the sheave-holes.CLENCH. To make a pin or bolt fast by battering and spreading the point.COAKING OR BUSHING, is letting through the middle of a sheave a cylindrical piece of metal, with a hole through its centre, agreeably to the size of the pin that is to be admitted as an axis for the sheave to run on, &c. &c.COUNTERSUNK. A hollow, cut by a bit round the edge of a hole.COUNTERSUNK-BIT. A bit having two cutting edges at the end, reversed to each other, which form an angle from the point.DRAWING KNIFE. An instrument made of a piece of steel, 2 inches wide, and 20 inches long; the ends are drawn out fine, bent, and fixed in wooden handles; it is ground to a sharp edge, and is sometimes used instead of the stock-sheave, to pare off the rough wood. |
FALL. The rope that with the blocks composes a tackle.
FORELOCK. A small wedge of iron driven through a hole near the end of iron pins to keep them from working out.
FRAME-SAW, for two persons to saw with, has an iron bow over the back confined at the ends by rivets: some are set in motion by a mill, and have wooden frames.
FUTTOCK PLATE, is of iron; the upper part of it is open like a ring, to fix the dead eye in, and a round hole is punched in the lower end of the plate for the futtock-shrouds to hook in, or a bolt to be driven through when used for the lower shrouds.
GAUGE. A wooden instrument to mark off distances, is a square stick 9 inches long, with an iron tooth through one end; this stick slides through a mortise in the middle of a semi-circular piece of wood that serves as a stop, the stick being moved at pleasure.
GOUGES are long, sharp, circular-edged tools, similar to chissels. Gouges and flat tools, used in turning, are stouter and longer than those used with a mallet.
GOUGE-BIT. A bit smaller than a centre-bit, with a hollow edge at its end like a gouge.
GREEN-HEART, a wood imported from the West-Indies, used for the pins of blocks.
HOLDFASTS to confine the work on the holdfast-bench, are made of iron from 15 to 30 inches long, and from half an inch to one inch and a half diameter: this iron is bent at one-third the length, and forms nearly a square; the longest part is round, and is called the foot; the shortest part is flattened in the inside, and is called the head: to confine the work it is put through a hole in the bench.
HOLDFAST-BENCH. A bench of elm plank; its top is 4 feet long, 12 inches wide, and 3 inches thick, with 4 legs 20 inches long; within 4 inches of one end are two upright pieces, 3 inches square, fixed in mortises; and along the middle of the bench are two rows of holes, in which the holdfast is jambed to confine the work that is to be sawed or trimmed.
JAMBED. Set fast with wedges.
LASHING. The rope lashed to a block for securing it to any object.
MANDREL of the turning lathe. An iron spindle, with a screw-cut box at one end, to screw the chock in which confines the work; round the middle of the spindle is a collar with a groove, in which the cord works that turns it. It is used in a lathe that is worked by a wheel instead of a treddle.
MILL. A patent invention used by some block-makers; it consists of a large horizontal wheel, turned by horses, which, by means of other wheels, iron cranks, leather bands, &c. gives motion to different turning-lathes and frame-saws, that cut the sheaves, and turn the sheaves and pins. The plate of this mill more fully describes its construction and use.
NOSE-BIT. A bit similar to a gouge bit, having a cutting edge on one side of the end.RASP. A sort of rough file made of steel, with short sharp teeth upon it. It is fixed in a wooden handle, and is used to rub down the edges of the shells of blocks, &c.REAMING. Encreasing the size of a hole by a larger instrument.RIB-SAW is a long narrow saw used in a pit.ROLLER, a cylindrical pin turning on its own axis, and is used in some blocks instead of a sheave.Patent rollers are made of two parallel circular plates of brass, about 1/4 inch thick. Four or more solid brass cylinders are placed at equal distances round these plates, and work upon their own axis, between them, at right angles. Thus any pin working through these plates of brass must touch the rolling surfaces of the solid brass cylinders, by which the friction is considerably lessened. SADDLE, is that part of a monkey-block which is hollowed out to fit the convexity of the yard, to which it is nailed. SCORE. A notch or hollow cut by a saw, gouge, or chissel. SHACKLE. A semi-circular ring of iron, with a hole in each end for a ring or bolt of iron to pass through, and is used to hook or lash a tackle, &c. to. SHOULDER. A projection made upon the surface of blocks, pins, &c. by reducing one part to a less substance. SPOKE-SHAVE, a kind of plane to smooth and finish the shells, is a piece of steel, 4 or more inches long, and one inch 1/2 broad; sharp at one edge as a knife, and 1/4 of an inch thick at the back: at each end is left about 2 inches of narrow steel, bent up as pegs, by which it is regulated and secured in a piece of wood 10 inches long, and narrowed at each end, for handles. STOCK. A wooden instrument to bore holes with, by fixing a bit in the lower end, and a pin with a round head in the other end; the pin and the bit serving as an axis to turn it on. STOCK-SHAVE. A large sharp-edged cutting knife, with a handle at one end and a hook at the other, by which it hooks in an iron staple that is driven in an elm block; it is used to pare off the rough wood from the shells of blocks, &c. STRAP. The circular binding of rope or iron surrounding a block, by which it is fastened with a hook or lashing to any place. SWIVEL, any thing which is fixed into another body, in which it turns round. SWIVEL-HOOK. A hook that turns in the end of an iron block-strap, for the ready taking the turns out of a tackle. TOGGLE-BOLT. A small iron bolt, having a flat square head, with a hole or eye punched through. TREDDLE. Two thin battens 4 feet long, laid transversely under the lathe; to the lower batten the cord is fastened that connects it to the lathe, and the work is put in motion by the pressure of the workman’s foot: the upper batten is fixed at one end to the ground with a thick piece of leather, resembling a hinge, and at the other end across the under one by an iron pin, for which purpose 8 or 10 holes are bored along the middle to regulate it to the work. TURNING-LATHE, a well known machine for turning sheaves, pins, &c. is composed of two legs 34 inches high, and on each side their upper ends is fastened a piece of oak, called cheeks, about 8 feet long and inches square, and about 3 inches asunder; between which slide two pieces of wood called puppets, that are made to fasten at any distance the work may require, by a wedge driven through them under the cheeks. Near the upper part of one is fixed a strong sharp spike of tempered steel. |
and opposite to it in the other is a sharp-pointed iron screw; between these the work is sustained and kept in a circular motion, by means of a cord turned round it, and fastened above to a pliable pole, and underneath to a treddle moved by the foot: against the sides of the puppets is confined a batten, with a pin through one end, called a rest, for the workman to keep his tool in a steady position on. When the work is too heavy for the treddle to perform, a wheel is substituted, which is turned by one or two handles, and is connected by means of a cord, the ends of which are spliced together, and fixed in a groove round the wheel, then crossed and put round a groove in the collar of the mandrel: to be turned with a swift and regular motion.WEB. The thin partition on the inside of the rim, and between the spokes of an iron sheave. THE PRACTICE OF BLOCK-MAKING.
THE proportions for single, double, treble, fourfold, and other blocks, are as follow; viz. the length is 8 times the breadth of the sheave-hole, which is one-sixteenth of an inch more than the thickness of the sheave; the thickness of the sheave is one-tenth more than the diameter of the rope it is intended for, and the diameter of the sheave is five times the thickness. The breadth of the block to be six times the thickness of the sheave, and the thickness to be one half the length, or nearly so. Flat thin blocks are three-eighths of the length thick; but all blocks, having more than one sheave, encrease their thickness more than the above proportion, by the additional number of sheave-holes, and middle-parts or partitions; the thickness of each partition to be one-sixth less than the breadth of the sheave-hole. These are the general dimensions, but sometimes vary, according to the use intended for. Very large treble and fourfold blocks are formed of separate pieces, as the cheeks, middle-parts, or partitions, &c. when thus made, they are termed made-blocks. The shells of blocks are first sawed to their length, breadth, and thickness; and the corners or angles are taken off. They are then delivered to the workman, who first gauges the size of the sheavehole in the middle, one-sixteenth larger than the thickness of the sheave, and once the thickness longer than the diameter, for a single sheaved block. In blocks of two sheaves, the middle-part or partition is kept in the middle, and is one-sixth less than the sheave-hole; each sheave-hole is gauged equally on each side, and so for all blocks with a greater number of sheaves. The blocks are then jambed up edgeways with wedges in a clave, and the sheave-holes are made thus: the length and breadth are first gouged out, and holes then bored half way through the block, along the part gouged out, with an auger the size of the sheave-hole; the opposite side is then set up, and the sheave-hole gouged and bored in the same manner, to meet the holes on the opposite side. Blocks from 10 inches and upwards have one hole bored at each end, and cut through with a chissel; and the wood is sawed out with a rib-saw. All blocks have the sheave-holes cleared through by chissels; and by burrs at the corners. Blocks, to have iron straps, should have the strap fitted on before the wood is cut out of the middle. |
The hole for the pin is bored through the middle of the block, one-tenth less than the diameter of the pin. It is the practice of many block-makers to bore it after the sheave-hole is cut, but it is better to bore it through the solid.The outsides and edges of the shell are next rounded off by the stock-shave, and neatly finished by the spoke-shave: as the neatness of the finishing depends upon the use the block is designed for, it rests on the judgement of the workman. In the royal-navy, blocks are left thick upon the edges of the cheeks, but in the merchant-ships, the edges are sometimes thinned off to a small square, and sometimes rounded off.The scores for the straps are gouged out along the outsides of the cheeks, and taper in depth, from nothing at the pin to half the thickness of the strap at the ends of the block, for a single score; and the same on each side of the pin for a double score. The scores are gouged down, across the breast of the block, to half the size of the strap, to allow for the serving.STRAPPING. A seventeen-inch block has a five-inch rope strap, and every inch in length above or under, to a 12 inch block, has half an inch more or less fixed rope allowed for the strap; an 11-inch block has a 3-inch strap; a 10 and 9 inch block, 2 inches and a half; an 8 and 7 inch block, 2 inches; a 6-inch block, one inch and a half; a 5-inch block, 1 inch; and a 4-inch block, three-quarters of an inch.The score round iron-bound blocks is taken out to the size of the iron strap, sufficient to bury it, except at the pin.Iron straps are from one-quarter to one inch in thickness, and nearly three times the thickness in breadth: the thickness of iron straps should be proportioned to the strain they are to resist. The cat-block must have a strong strap and large iron hook, which hooks the ring of the anchor in catting. The top-block a stout iron binding, with a strong short hook. Top tackle-blocks have strong iron bindings, the upper block with a tackle-hook, and the lower block with a swivel-hook. The swivel, in iron-bound blocks, is to turn it occasionally, to untwist the parts of the rope that form the tackle, as the mechanical power is greatly reduced thereby. The sheaves, after the score is cut, are fitted: they are solid cylindrical wheels, commonly made of lignum-vitae, one-tenth thicker than the diameter of the rope intended to run on them, and five times that thickness in diameter; they are sawed from the bough or trunk of lignum-vitae, which must be matched as near the size as possible, for, set the diameter of the piece be what it may, it will make but one sheave, as the heart must be kept near the centre: the sheaves are cut by hand with a frame-saw, or by a mill, and often at the pit by a pit saw. The hole for the pin should be bored through the centre by a bitt fixed in the mandrel of a turning lathe, or with a stock and bitt, and reamed with an auger one-sixteenth larger than the diameter of the pin, that it may turn easily; they are then put in a lathe and turned smooth, and the outer circumference hollowed one-third of its thickness, that the rope may embrace it closely. Sheaves for very laborious purposes are made of cast metal, coaked in the middle with hard bell-metal; some are made of brass only, others of iron, with a brass coak, either open or webbed; and lignum-vitae sheaves are often coaked, or plated, to make them wear longer and work better. Coaking or bushing is letting through the middle of a sheave a cylindrical piece of metal, with a hole through its centre, to admit the pin or axis on which the sheave turns; on each side of the sheave a plate is set in, having 3 or 4 corresponding holes in each, for rivets to go through, to secure and strengthen the whole. The entrance of the hole; in the plates are enlarged, that the heads of the |
rivets and points when clenched may have a smooth surface. When but one plate, the rivets have broad heads; the holes in the sheave are made accordingly, and the points are clenched on the plate.The cylinder and one plate are cast in one piece.PLANK COAKING is letting in narrow pieces of lignum-vitae, transversely to each other, one on each side of the sheave; which has likewise a small circular brass plate set in on each side, and rivetted through, as others.PINS OF BLOCKS are made of lignum-vitae, or cocus; and some times, for common blocks, of green-heart, a wood which is imported from the West-Indies: the diameter of the pin is the thickness of the sheave, and is turned in a lathe, except the head, which is left eight-square, to prevent its turning in the block, and is driven through the holes in the block and sheaves. Brass, iron, and lignum-vitae sheaves, that are coaked or plated, have iron-turned pins, with square heads, and sometimes a hole in the point, for a forelock, to prevent their coming out.After the sheaves are fitted, the inside of the sheave-hole, at the arse of the block, is gouged hollow, to admit the rope, and answer with the sheave; and a small neat chamfer taken off the edges.MADE-BLOCKS have the shell made of several pieces of elm plank, suited to the thickness of the cheeks, sheave-holes, and middle-parts, and are strongly bolted together with three bolts, at each end, driven through and clenched on a ring at the points. These blocks have flatter cheeks and squarer edges than other treble and fourfold blocks. Of this sort are large, treble, and fourfold blocks, for heaving down ships or other heavy purchases. Smaller made blocks, of modern invention, are made of two pieces, joining in the middle, and the pin to work on patent rollers, set into the inside of the cheeks, which are bolted or rivetted together at the ends. These blocks are thought too complex for the royal-navy, and not so easily remedied in case of failure. Altho’ the shells of different blocks vary in shape, the outsides are finished in a similar manner. BEE-BLOCKS are made of elm; in length, seven-ninths the length of the bee; the depth, two inches for every foot in length; and seven-eighths that depth is the thickness. It is trimmed square, chamfered on the outside edges, and fitted with a sheave in one end: a hole is cut in the other end, to be fitted with a sheave, should the other fail. The sheave-hole is two-sevenths of the length of the block, and one-fourth the length of the sheave-hole in breadth, and half the length of the sheave-hole within the end. Bee-blocks are bolted to the outer ends of bow sprits, under the bees, and the bolts serve as the axis or pin for the sheaves to work on; the fore-topmast-stay reeves through the sheave-hole at the foremost end of the starboard bee-block, and the fore-topmast-preventer, or spring-stay, through the sheave-hole at the after end of the larboard bee-block. CHEEK-BLOCKS, or half-blocks, are made of elm plank; the length is twice and a half the depth of the topmast-head; the breadth is seven-eighths of the depth of the topmast-head; and the thickness half the depth of the topmast-head. The depth of each tenon and thickness of the cheek, when the sheave-hole is cut, is each three-eighths of the whole thickness, consequently the remaining 2/8 is the sheave-hole. The three tenons to be each two inches square, one in the middle, and one at each end, and the length of the holes to be the thickness of the sheave more than the breadth of the block. The back of the block is divided into three parts, and one-third on each side is bearded down to one-third the thickness of the cheek on each edge. Pins of iron are made suitably to fasten them to the topmast-head, and the sheave-holes are coppered, for durability. Cheek-blocks are bolted to the ‘thwartship sides of topmast-heads, close up under the cap: the bolts serve as the pin or axis for the sheaves |
to work on; the jib-stay and haliards, and fore-topmast-staysail-stay and haliards, reeve through the cheek-blocks at the fore-topmast-head, and the main-topmast-staysail haliards, and middle-staysail-stay and haliards, reeve through the cheek-blocks, at the main-topmast-head.DEEP-SEA-LINE-BLOCKS are the same as a wooden snatch-block, only smaller; generally from 9 to 11 inches long.D-BLOCKS are lumps of oak in the shape of a D, from 12 to 16 inches long, and 8 or 10 inches wide. They are thirded and bearded on the back, and the edges beaded. A sheave-hole is cut through the middle fore and aft. It is bolted to the ship’s side, in the channels, to reeve the lifts, &c.LONG-TACKLE-BLOCK. The shell is made of ash or elm, two-thirds longer than the proportion for a single block; as it is similar to two single blocks joined together endways; one to be two-thirds less than the other. They are used for tackles, and are made agreeably to the size of the rope, as other single blocks. They are used in the royal-navy, and East-India service, as yard-tackles; but in the merchant-service, as loading-tackles.MAIN-SHEET-BLOCK. The shell is made of ash or elm, one-half longer than the proportion for single or double blocks; the additional length is tapered, and a hole bored through between the sheaves and the end, to admit the strap: the length of the pin is the length of the block, and is similar to a belaying-pin, as it is sometimes used for that purpose. They are used for the sheet-tackle of small vessels mainsail-booms; are single or double, and the sheet or fall is always belayed round the pin.MONKEY-BLOCKS. The shells are made of ash or elm; some are only small single blocks, attached by a strap and iron-swivel to iron straps that embrace and nail to the yard, the block turning to lead the small running ropes in any direction. Others are nearly eight-square, with a roller working in the middle, the same as a sheave, with a wooden saddle beneath, to fit and nail to the yard. This sort of blocks is sometimes used on the lower yards of small merchant-ships, to lead (into the mast or down upon deck) the running rigging belonging to the sails. NINE-PIN-BLOCKS. The shells are made of ash or elm, and resemble the shape of a nine-pin, though flatted on the sides: their lengths are generally confined to the place they are fixed in, which is mostly under the cross-pieces of the forecastle and quarter-deck bitts. The breadth of the block, sheave, &c. is governed by the rope, as the single block, and tapers at the ends to three-eighths of the breadth of the middle: the pin at each end, which serves as a vertical axis, is two-thirds the bigness of the end. The thickness is 5-8ths the breadth. These blocks may be turned in a lathe, and flatted with a spoke-shave afterwards. They are used to lead the running ropes in a horizontal direction. QUARTER-BLOCK. See thick-and-thin block. RACK-BLOCKS are a range of small single blocks, made from one solid, by the same proportions as single-blocks, with ends, in form of a dove’s tail, for the lashing, by which they are fastened athwart the bowsprit, to lead in the running ropes. They are seldom used. SHOE-BLOCKS are two single blocks, cut in a solid piece, transversely to each other. They are used for legs and sails of the buntlines, but are seldom used. SHOULDER-BLOCK is a large single block, left nearly square at the lower end, or arse of the block, and cut sloping in the direction of the sheave. Shoulder-blocks are used on the lower yardarms, to lead in the topsail-sheets; and, on the topsail-yards, to lead in the topgallant-sheets; and by means of the shoulder are kept upright, and prevent the sheets jambing between the block and the yard: they are also used at the outer end of the boomkins, to lead in the fore-tacks. SISTER-BLOCKS are made of ash, similar to two single blocks, and are turned out of a solid piece, about 20 inches long, one above the other; between the blocks is a score for a middle seizing: |
a round head is turned at each end, and hollowed underneath, to contain the end seizings; along the sides, through which the pins are driven, is a groove, large enough to receive part of the topmast-shroud, in which it is seized. In these blocks reeve the lifts, and reef-tackle-pendents, of the topsail-yards.SNATCH-BLOCKS are proportioned by the rope, as a single block, leaving twice the length for the score and lashing; they taper from the sheave to the lashing-end, to half the breadth and thickness at the sheave: one side of the shell is cut across above the sheave, large enough to admit the rope or fall. In the royal-navy, snatch-blocks are iron-bound, terminating at the small end with a swivel-hook, or an eye, large enough to receive several turns of lashing; that part of the strap, over the notch in the side, lifts up with a hinge, and is confined down, when the rope is in the block, by a small iron hook, or latch, that hooks in the eye of a toggle-bolt, and that secures the upper end of the strap: the hinged part of the strap goes over the bolt, with a hole in the end; the strap is set into the block its thickness, and is confined by the pin and nails: they are used for heavy purchases, and when a warp, or hawser is brought to the capstern. Snatch-blocks, not iron-bound, have a large hole bored through the tapering end of the shell, for the lashing. They are used for the main and fore sheet blocks of square-rigged vessels.STRAP-BOUND-BLOCKS are single blocks, with a shoulder left on each side, at the upper part, to admit the strap through, a little above the pin. These blocks are used at the clues of the squaresails, for the clue-garnets or clue-lines, and under the yards; the shoulder saves the strap from chafing.THICK-AND-THIN, OR QUARTER BLOCK, is a double block, with one sheave thicker than the other, and is used to lead down the topsail-sheets and clue-lines. In the merchant-service they are used single, thick and thin.VOYOL or VIOL BLOCK is a large single-sheaved block; the length is 10 times the thickness of the sheave-hole, which is three-eighths more than the thickness of the sheave; the thickness of the sheave is one-tenth more than the diameter of the viol, and the diameter of the sheave is seven times the thickness. The breadth of the block to be 8 times the thickness of the sheave, and the thickness to be two-sevenths of the length. This block is double scored, the sheave is coaked with brass and the pin is iron, and near the thickness of the sheave. It is used in heaving up the anchor. The viol passes round the jear-capstern, and through the block, which is lashed to the main-mast; and the cable is fastened in a temporary manner to the viol in several places. It is seldom used but in the largest ships in the royal-navy.WARPING-BLOCK is made of ash or elm board, shaped similar to the body of a bellows: the sides or cheeks are 8 inches and a half broad in the middle, and tapered to 2 inches broad at the ends; the back, or longest cheek, to be 16 inches long, and seven-eighths of an inch thick, with a hole bored through the upper end to receive a leather strap; the upper cheek is 12 inches long, and seven-eighths of an inch thick, except the lower end, which is one inch and seven-eighths thick, and forms the sheave-hole. The sheave is one inch and a quarter thick, and seven inches and a half diameter, made of lignum-vitae, coaked with brass; it is set into the cheeks one-eighth of an inch, to prevent the yarn getting between the sheave and cheeks. The cheeks are fastened together at the lower end with three screws and nuts; and the pin, which is iron, is 7 inches long, driven through the middle of the block, with a shoulder on the upper side, and clenched at the point on the lower side of the shell: the upper part of the pin is tapered small, and a wooden handle rivetted thereon. The cheeks have a broad chamfer round the outer edges; the inside edges, and inside of the block above the sheave, are lined with thin iron, neatly screwed on, to prevent the block wearing. This block is finished in a |
neater manner than blocks in general, and is seldom used but by rope-makers, to warp off the yarn into hauls for tarring. besides blocks, the following articles are generally furnished by block-makers.
DEAD-EYES are blocks made of elm, without sheaves, from 4 to 30 inches diameter, and are in thickness one inch more than half their diameter. Through the flatted sides, one-fourth the diameter within the circumference, are bored three holes, which form a triangle, large enough to reeve the laniard. The single hole is placed furthest from the resistance, and the edges of the holes, nearest the resistance, are gouged or sunk in, to ease the strain. A score is gouged round the middle of the outside of the dead-eye, large enough to receive half the stay, shroud, or iron-binding, which is connected to the links. Dead-eyes, for tops, are fixed in the futtock plates, and used by some merchant ships for the lower shrouds. Dead-eyes are used when the strain is too great to trust a pin and sheaves. Spare dead-eyes are iron-bound, with an eye, for the ready hooking, in time of necessity, to an iron ess-hook. HEARTS. A peculiar sort of dead-eye, made of elm, from 4 to 40 inches in diameter, shaped to resemble a heart, and flatted on the sides, through which are gouged a large hole to contain the laniard, that extends the stay; the larger the hole the better; so that one-third the diameter is left nearest the strain, decreasing on the sides and opposite part: four or more grooves are gouged at the edges of the hole, on the broaden part, to receive the first turns of the laniard, and ease the strain: round the outer circumference is gouged a groove, in the middle, to receive the stay. Sometimes hearts are used instead of dead-eyes, for setting up shrouds. BULLS-EYES are a sort of small oval blocks, without sheaves, made of hard wood. They are turned in a lathe; have a groove round the outside, and an oval hole gouged through the middle. They are used instead of blocks and iron thimbles, but very seldom used at all. PARRALS. An assemblage of ribs and trucks, which, with the parral rope, form a collar, to attach the upper yards to the masts, so that the yard may slide easily up or down the mast. The rib is made of ash board, the diameter of the yard in length and one-third the length in breadth. It is straight on the inner edge, and divided into two semi-circles on the back, with a hollow cavity between. Through the flat sides are bored two holes, one in the middle of each semi-circle. The truck is made of ash, or harder wood, the breadth of the rib in diameter, and one-third more than the diameter in length: it is turned in a lathe; and through the centre, lengthways, is bored a hole to answer those in the rib. Some parrals consist of trucks and a parral-rope only. They are globular, with a hole through the centre for the rope. TRUCKS. Shroud-trucks are short cylindrical pieces of ash, or harder wood, turned in a lathe, and a little rounded on the edges, with a hole bored through the centre lengthways, and a groove gouged on the outside in the same direction, to suit the shroud or rope intended to be seized to: round the middle, or at each end, is a score, (turned) for several turns of seizing to lie in; some are wooden balls, with a hole through the middle, and grooved round the outsides for the seizing to lie in. Trucks for the upper part of mast-heads, or flag-staffs, are made of elm, the size of the top-mast in diameter, and one-sixth the diameter in thickness: they are turned in a lathe, and reduced to three-fourths of the thickness at the edge; have a square mortise cut through the middle, to suit the head or masts or staffs, and a small sheave-hole cut through on each side of the mortise, for the flag or other haliards. |
Trucks, in the royal-navy, have small brass sheaves and pins. In the merchant-service, they have only two holes bored through, to reeve the haliards, which traverses over a rounded piece of wood, nailed across the truck, on the upperside.Ornamental trucks, for vanes, are turned in a lathe, mostly shaped like acorns, with a hole bored up the centre, by which they are fixed, and terminate the end of the spindle, and prevent the vane stock’s rising. Other trucks, for this purpose, are longer, and taper more to a point, according to fancy.UPHROES are oblong blocks, made of ash, without sheaves, from 9 to 30 inches long, and 2 to 5 inches diameter; having several holes bored through the middle at equal distances, and grooved round the outside, to receive the rope by which it is suspended.They are used to suspend the awnings, by extending the small ropes equally, through the holes lengthways, along the middle of the awning: formerly used as a fence under the brim of tops, to prevent the foot of the topsail chafing, but are seldom used now for this purpose, except in small vessels.CLEATS are made of oak plank, or board, sawed to the different shapes for the use designed and then made smooth, and finished with gouges, chissels, and rasps. The largest are called RANGES, or RANGE-CLEATS, for belaying tacks and sheets to: they are from 3 to 7 inches thick, and seven times the thickness in length. The arms are each one-third of the length, and made round; the middle, between the two arms, is left square twice the thickness in breadth, through which it is bolted, or fastened; the back is curved in the length, that the arms may rise from the inside straight. BELAYING-CLEATS are shaped the same as range-cleats, but are smaller. SHROUD-CLEATS are similar to belaying-cleats, with the addition of an inside piece, out of the same solid, long enough to have a score on each side of the middle part of the cleat, to contain the seizings which fasten it to the shroud; the inside is hollowed to fit the shroud, and another score cut across the middle of the cleat for the middle seizing the scores are rounded on the outside edges, and cut deep enough to bury the seizing, to prevent its being worn when the rope is belayed.SLING-CLEATS are made of elm plank, in length once and a quarter the diameter of the yard, in breadth one-fourth the length, and thickness two-thirds the breadth. The shoulder to be one-third the length of the cleat, and hollowed on the back from the shoulder to the end: are used as stops to the straps of jeer-blocks, &c. to the lower yards. THUMB-CLEATS are similar to arm-cleats in shape, but smaller, and are nailed up vertically, to hang any thing on; or horizontally, as stop-cleats. STOP-CLEATS are made of oak plank, or board, of all lengths under 12 inches; the largest are commonly for gammoning bowsprits and stops to stay collars. The breadth to be one-fourth the length; the thickness to be two-thirds the breadth; and hollowed on the back. Those for lashings at the mast-heads are made of elm, three times the thickness in breadth, and once and a half the breadth in length. COMB-CLEATS are made of ash, or elm board, have one or more hollow cavities gouged in the middle, and the backs rounded to resemble a cock’s comb. COMMON-CLEATS are of elm, sawed tapering on one side; are about 3 inches thick, 4 inches broad, and 12 inches long. WEDGES are made by an axe, or engine, of oak or beech, and are similar to common cleats, but taper on both sides. BELAYING-PINS are wooden pins, turned in a lathe, made of ash, 16 inches long, one inch and three-eighths diameter at the upper end, which is turned as a handle; is three-sevenths the length, then shouldered in to one inch and an eighth diameter. |
RACK. A narrow oak board, or rail, containing a number of belaying-pins, which are used to belay small running rigging to: some belaying-pins are made of iron, and taper each way from the middle, and are driven into racks, boatskids, or rails.TOGGLES are turned in a lathe: those for confining the straps of large blocks, as the winding or the fish-tackle-blocks, are large tapering ash or oak pins, from 18 inches to 3 feet long, and one-fifth the length in diameter. Small toggles are little wooden pins, 3 to 9 inches Long, and taper each way from the middle, round which is a notch, whereby they are seized to the top-mast cross-trees, or elsewhere about the rigging.THIMBLES are circles of iron, made by smiths, from 1 to 4. inches diameter; the edges are turned outwards, and form a groove, to contain a rope on the circumference.TRAVELLERS are circles of iron, made by smiths, similar to thimbles, but larger, and much lighter: they are to facilitate the descent of topgallant-yards by the backstays, &c. Jib-traveller is an iron ring, five-eighths to one inch and a half thick, and the diameter once and a quarter the diameter of the jib-boom, with a hook and shackle that slide on the ring.HANKS are made of narrow hoops, or tough wood, bent round and confined at the ends by notches: they are to hasten the descent of staysails, being fixed on the stay, and the head of the sail bent to the hanks. There are iron hanks similar in shape to the former, but open at the lower part, to go over the stay; made broader in the middle than at the ends, which causes them to spring to their shape; the ends are drawn out fine, and turned into a small ring, for securing the head of the sail by the seizing. Iron hanks are mostly to the foresails of vessels with one mast.IRON HOOKS, for tackles, are made with an eye to receive the thimble, and taper at the point: they are hollow on the back, that a seizing may lie on them, without slipping; or a catspaw hitch: a hole is generally punched through the point, for mousing. Iron hooks, for the futtock-shrouds, have a square point, to prevent their unhooking. FIDS are tapered pins, made of wood or iron; the wood are turned in a lathe. SPLICINGS-FIDS are made of cocus, and are used for strapping blocks, and splicing the running rigging. SETTING-FIDS made of ash, are used for setting blocks in the straps. CABLE and STAY-FIDS, made of elm, used in splicing stays and cables. Those made of iron are short and thick, sometimes having an eye in the largest end, and are commonly curved near the point. MARLINE-SPIKE is made of iron, smaller than a fid, with a round knob at the head, and is used as the splicing-fid. MALLETS are cylindrical pieces of wood, with a wooden handle fixed in the centre, and are made of ash or other hard wood; used for driving on the heads of chissels or gouges. SERVING-MALLETS, have a score gouged out along the side, for serving of ropes. DRIVING-MALLETS, or COMMANDERS, are about 20 inches long, and 8 or 10 inches diameter, with a handle 3 times the diameter in length: used for driving in large fids, and to beat up the fall round a capstern. CHOCK. A square tapering piece of elm; it is one-fourth longer than the size of the base, or butt end, with a hole bored through the sides: used in strapping large blocks. SERVING BOARD is a tapering thin piece of board, with a small score gouged at the end and sides. It is used for serving small ropes. SHOES FOR ANCHORS are oval pieces of elm plank, about 2 feet long, sawed out, and rounded on the underside with an adze: in the middle of the upperside a double score is taken out with a chissel, 2 inches broad; sunk three-fourths of an inch each way from the middle, that it may catch the bill in either direction: at the small end is bored a hole for a laniard. It is placed under the bill of the anchor, when removed from one place to another, to prevent its tearing the ships sides or deck. |
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RIGGING. |
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RIGGING.
ALTHOUGH the masts, yards, sails, blocks, and ropes, do altogether compose what may be called the Rigging of a Ship, or Vessel; yet the mode of applying the ropes to the several other parts, and combining the whole, so as to produce the means of navigating the vessel, is likewise termed, Rigging a Vessel; and of rigging, in this latter sense, we are now about to treat. There are two species of Rigging: one called Standing-Rigging; the other Running-Rigging. Ropes used to sustain the masts remain fixed; as shrouds, stays, and back-stays: such are called standing-rigging. The ropes leading through various blocks, and to different places of the masts, yards, sails, and shrouds, and which are moved according to the various operations of navigation, such as the lifts, braces, sheets, tacks, haliards, clue-lines, bunt-lines, leech-lines, bow-lines, spilling-lines, brails, down-haulers, &c. are called running-rigging. These general ideas of rigging may suffice. For the more easy and accurate knowledge of this science we now commence with an EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS USED IN RIGGING.
ARM-GASKET. See Gaskets. ARM-CLEAT. See Cleats. AWNING. A canvas covering, expanded over the decks of a ship, to screen the crew from, and prevent the decks spliting by, the heat of the sun. BACK-STAYS. See Stays. BAG-REEF. See Reef. |
BALANCE-REEF. See Reef. BECKETS. Large iron hooks, or short ropes, used in several parts of a ship to confine large ropes, &c. or to hang up the weather-sheets and lee-tacks of the main and fore sail to the foremost main and fore shrouds. Some beckets have an eye spliced in one end, and a small walnut-knot crowned at the other, and some have both ends spliced together like a wreath. The noose made at the breast of a block, to make fast the standing part of a fall-to, is also called a becket. BELAYING. Fastening a rope, by giving it several cross turns alternately round each end, of a cleat, pin, &c. BELL-ROPE. See Ropes. BELAYING-CLEAT. See Cleats. BELAYING-PINS. See Pins. BENDING. Fastening one rope to another, or to different objects, and fastening a sail to its yard. BENDS. The small ropes used to confine the clinch of a cable. BENTINCK-SHROUDS. See Shrouds. BIGHT. The noose, or doubled part of a rope when folded. BILL-PENDENT. See Pendent. BITTS. A frame composed of two upright pieces of timber, called the pins, and a cross piece fastened horizontally on the top of them: they are used to belay cables and ropes to. Bowline and Brace Bitts are situated near the masts; the Fore-jeer and Topsail-sheet bitts are situated on the forecastle and round the fore-mast; the Main-jeer and Topsail-sheet-bitts, tenon into the fore-mast-beam of the quarter-deck; the Riding-bitts are the largest bitts in a ship, and those to which the cable is bitted when the vessel rides at anchor. BIT-STOPPER. See Stopper. BLOCKS. Machines used in ships, &c. to encrease the mechanical power of ropes. See the treatise on blocks. BLOCK-AND-BLOCK. The situation of a tackle when the effect is destroyed by the blocks meeting together. BOARDING-NETTING. See Netting. BOATSKIDS. Long square pieces of fir, extending across the ship from the gang-boards, and on which the boats, spare masts, &c. are stowed. BOBSTAY. See Stay. BOLSTERS. Bags filled with rope-yarn, or shakings, which are placed under the shrouds and stays, to prevent their chafing against the trestle-trees. BOLT-ROPE. The rope sewed to the edges of sails. BOOMS. Long poles run out from the extremities of the yards, bowsprits, and sides of the masts, to extend the feet of particular sails. The Driver-boom, on which the foot of the driver, or spanker, is extended, is attached to the mizen-masts, and the outer end hangs over the stern. The Jib-boom is run out from the outer end of the bowsprit, and extends the foot of the jib. The Main-boom, used in vessels of one or two masts, is similar to the driver-boom of a ship, and on this is spread the foot of the main-sail. The Ringtail-boom is a small boom projecting from the stern of some vessels to spread the foot of the ringtail-sail; and also a small boom, lashed occasionally to the outer end of the mainsail-boom, to spread the foot of the ringtail-sail when hoisted at the after-leech of fore and aft main-sails. The Square-sail-boom is lashed across the deck of vessels with one mast, to spread the |
foot of the square-sail. STUDDING-SAIL-BOOMS, to spread the studding-sails, slide through boom-irons at the extremities of the yards, and from the vessels’ sides. BOOM-IRONS. Two flat iron rings formed into one piece, one above the other; employed to connect the booms to the yards, &c. the lower ring is the largest, and is driven on the yard: some boom-irons fasten on the yards with a crotch or strap, secured by nails and hoops. BOOM-TACKLE. See Tackle. BOWSING. Hauling or pulling upon a rope or fall of a tackle to remove a body, or increase the tension. BOWLINE. See Lines. BOWLINE-BITTS. See Bitts. BOWLINE-TACKLE. See Tackle. BOWSPRIT. The large boom or mast which projects over the stem. See the treatise on masts. BOWSPRIT-HORSES. See Horses. BOWSPRIT-NETTING. See Netting. BOWSPRIT-SHROUDS. See Shrouds. BRACE. A rope to turn the yards and sails horizontally about the masts, and shift them when necessary. Preventer-brace. A rope used in ships of war, to supply the place of a brace, should that be shot away or damaged. They are led the contrary way, to be less liable to detriment at the same time. BRACE-BITTS. See Bitts. BRACE-PENDENTS. See Pendent. BRAILS. Ropes passing through blocks on the gaff, and fastened to the after-leech of fore and aft main-sails, to truss or brail them up. Similar also are the brails of stay-sails. BREAST-ROPE. See Rope. BREAST-WORK. The rails and stantions on the foremost end of the quarter-deck and poop. BREAST-WORK-NETTING. See Netting. BRIDLES. Short ropes, or legs, which fasten the bowlines to the cringles on the leeches of sails. BUMKINS OR BOOMKINS. Short booms projecting from each side of the bow to haul down the fore-tack. BUMKIN-SHROUDS. See Shrouds. BUNT-GASKET. See Gasket. BUNTLINES. See Lines. BURTONS. See Burton Tackles. BUOY-ROPE. See Rope. BURTON-PENDENTS. See Pendents. BURTON-TACKLE. See Tackle. BUTTON AND LOOP. A short piece of rope, having at one end a walnut knot, crowned, and at the other end an eye. It is used as a becket to confine ropes in. BUTTONS. Small pieces of thick leather under the heads of nails that are driven through ropes. CABLET. Any cable-laid rope under nine inches in circumference. CAPS. Short thick blocks of wood, with two holes in them, used to confine the masts together. See the treatise on mast-making. To CAP a rope. To cover the end with tarred canvas, which is whipt with twine or spun-yarn. |
CAPSTERN. A machine for heaving up anchors, or other great strains. CAST-OFF. To loose a rope, by unseizing it, or by cutting the lashing. CATHARPINS. Short ropes, to keep the lower shrouds in tight, after they are braced in by swifters, and to afford room to brace the yards sharp. CATFALL. The rope that forms the tackle for heaving up the anchor from the waters’ edge to the bow. It reeves through the sheaves at the outer end of the cat-head, and through the sheaves of the cat-block alternately. CHAIN-BOAT. A large boat fitted with a davit over its stem, and two windlasses, one forward, and the other aft, in the inside. It is used for getting up mooring-chains, anchors, &c. CHAIN-PLATES. Thick iron plates bolted to the ship’s sides, and to which the chains and dead-eyes that support the masts by the shrouds are connected. CHAINS, or CHANNELS, or CHAINWALES. Broad thick planks, bolted edgeways against the ship’s sides, abreast and abaft the masts, used to extend the shrouds from each other, and from the head of the masts. CHEST-TREES. Narrow pieces of oak plank, fitted and bolted to the top-sides of vessels abaft the fore-channels, with a sheave in the upper end; it confines the clues of the main-sail, by hauling home the main-tack through the sheave. CHOAKING the LUFF. Placing the bight of the leading part, or fall of a tackle, close up between the nest part and jaw of the block. CHOCK. A thick triangular piece of wood, fastened in a temporary manner in the strap at the arse of the block: on the base of the chock-wedges are driven to force the block into its place. CLAMP. A crooked iron plate, fastened to the after-end of the main-cap of snows, to secure the trysail-mast. CLASP-HOOP. See Hoop. CLEATS. Pieces of wood of various shapes, used for stops, and to make ropes fast to, viz. Arm or Sling-cleats are nailed on each side of the slings of the lower yard, and have an arm at one end, which lies over the straps of the jeer blocks to prevent their being chaffed. Belaying-cleats have two arms, or horns, and are nailed through the middle to the masts, or elsewhere, to belay ropes to. Comb-cleats are semi-circular, and are hollowed in the middle to confine a rope to one place. Range-cleats are shaped like belaying-cleats, but are much larger, and are bolted through the middle. Shroud-cleats have two arms, similar to belaying-cleats; the inside is hollowed to fit the shroud, and grooves are cut round the middle and ends to receive the seizings, which confine them to the shrouds. Stop-cleats are nailed to yard-arms, to prevent the slipping of the rigging and the gammoning, and to stop collars on masts, &c. Thumb-cleats are shaped like arm-cleats, but are much smaller. CLINCH. That part of a cable which is fastened to the ring of an anchor, &c. CLOATHING THE BOLSTERS. Laying several thicknesses of worn canvas, well tarred, over them, to make an easy bed for the shrouds. CLUE-GARNETS. Tackles connected to the clues of main and fore courses, to truss the sail up to the yard. CLUE-LINES. See Lines. COIL. Rope laid in regular folds for the convenience of stowage, and hanging upon cleats, to prevent its being entangled. |
COLLAR. The upper part of a stay; also a rope formed into a wreath, by splicing the ends together, with a heart, or dead-eye, seized in the bight, to which the stay is confined at the lower part. COMB-CLEAT. See Cleats. CRINGLES. Small loops made on the bolt-rope of a sail; used to fasten different ropes to, hook the reef tackles to, for drawing the sail up to its yard, to fasten the bridles of the bowline to, and to extend the leech of the sail, &c. CROSS-JACK-YARD. See Yard. CROTCHES. Pieces of wood or iron, the upper part of which is composed of two arms, resembling a half-moon. They are chiefly used to support spare masts, &c. CROSS-TREES. Short flat pieces of timber, set in and bolted athwartships to the trestle-trees, at the mast-head, to support the tops, &c. CROW-FOOT. An assemblage of small cords, which reeve through holes, made at regular distances through the uphroe: its use is to suspend the awnings, and keep the foot of the top-sail from striking under the tops. CROWN OF THE CABLE. The bights which are formed by the several turns. CROWNING. The finishing of a knot made on the end of a rope. CUNTLINE. The intervals between the strands of a rope. DAVIT. A short boom fitted in the fore-channel, and used as the arm of a crane to hoist the flukes of the anchor clear of the ship’s side, till high enough to lay on the gunwale, and fastened by the shank-painter. DAVIT-ROPE. See Rope. DEAD-EYES. Round flat wooden blocks, with three holes instead of sheaves, through which the laniards reeve, when setting up the shrouds, or stays. The power gained by dead-eyes, is as the number of parts of the laniards rove through them; but, if the laniards be not well greased, the power will be greatly lost by friction, so that they are never applied as purchases, but merely for the better keeping the quantity gained of any shroud, or stay, when set up, and are much stronger than blocks with sheaves, when strain lies on a single pin. DECK-STOPPER. See Stopper. DERRICK. A tackle used at the outer quarter of a mizen-yard, consisting of a double and single block, connected by a fall; also a diagonal shore, as a support to sheers; also a single spar, top-mast, or boom, raised upright, and supported by guys at the head, from whence hangs a tackle over the hatchway, the heel working in a socket of wood fastened on the deck. DOG-STOPPER. See Stopper. DRIVER-BOOM. See Boom. DRIVER-YARD. See Yard. DOLPHIN. A rope lashed round the mast as a support to the pudding. DOWNHAULER. A rope which hoists down the stay-sails, studding sails, and boom-sails, to shorten sail, &c. EARINGS. Small ropes employed to fasten the upper corners of sails. EASE-OFF, OR VEER-AWAY. To slacken a rope gradually. ENTERING-ROPE. See Rope. EYE of A SHROUD. The upper part, which is formed into a sort of collar to go over the mast heads. |
EYELET-HOLES. The holes made in the head and reefs of sails. FAKE. One of the turns of a rope when stowed, or coiled. FALL. The rope that connects the blocks of a tackle; but the fall sometimes implies only the loose part which is pulled upon to produce the desired effect. FANCY-LINES. See Lines. FANGS OR LEE-FANGS. A rope fastened to a cringle, near the foot of a ketche’s wing-sail, to haul in the foot of the sail for lacing on the bonnet, or taking in the sail. FENDERS. Pieces of wood, or old cable, bags of old rope-yarn, shakings, cork, or other materials, hung by a laniard over a vessel’s sides, to prevent her being damaged. FID. A square bar of iron, or wood, driven through a hole in the heel of a top-mast, when raised at the head of a lower-mast; it, resting on the trestle-trees, supports the top-masts, &c. The top-gallant-mast is retained in the same manner at the head of the top-mast, and the royal mast above that. FIDS. Round tapering pins of various sizes, made of iron, or hard wood, and used for splicing of cordage. FISH-TACKLE. See Tackle. FISH-TACKLE-PENDENTS. See Pendents. FLAG-STAFF. See Staff. FLAG-STAFF-STAYS. See Stays. FLEETING. Changing the situation of a tackle, by placing the blocks further asunder, the force being destroyed by the blocks meeting, called block-and-block. FLEMISH HORSES. See Horses. FLY OF A FLAG. The opposite part to the hoist. FLYING OF SAILS. Setting them in loose a manner; as royal sails without lifts, or sheets, the clues being lashed; as small topgallant-sails, jibs, without stays; and as studding-sails without booms. FORE-TOPGALLANT-STAY-TACKLE. See Tackle. FOUL implies entangled, as the tackle is when twisted. The Cables are FOUL, when twisted round each other, by a vessel’s turning round the anchors by which she rides. FOXES. Twisted rope-yarns; used for making of rope bands, &c. &c. FRAPPING. Taking several turns round the middle of a lashing, or any number of ropes, and drawing the several parts tight together. FURLING. Wrapping, or rolling a sail close up to its yard, mast, or stay, and fastening it up with gaskets, lines, &c. FURLING-LINE. See Lines. FUTTOCK-PLATE. A narrow plate of iron, having a dead-eye bound in the upper end. An eye is made in the lower end, which is put through a mortise in the sides of the top, to hook the futtock-shroud to. FUTTOCK-SHROUD. See Shroud. FUTTOCK-STAVE. A short piece of rope served over with spun-yarn, to which the shrouds are confined at the catharpins. GAFF. A pole used to extend the mizen course of a ship, and the fore and aft mainsails of smaller vessels. |
GAMMONING. The rope which binds the inner quarter of the bowsprit close down upon the stem, that it may rest well in its bed. GANGWAY-NETTING. See Netting. GASKETS. Braided cordage used to confine the sail to the yard, when furled, &c. Arm-gaskets; those gaskets used at the extremities of yards. Bunt-gaskets are those used in the middle of yards. Quarter-gaskets; those used between the middle and extremities of the yards. GIRT-LINES. See Lines. GRIPES. Short ropes with dead eyes, used to confine the boats to the deck. GROMMETS. Rings made of worn rope, which are used to confine the nock of spritsails to the mast, and the oars of boats to the pins, instead of rowlocks, &c. GUEST-ROPE. See Rope. GUYS. Ropes to keep steady sheers, davits, or derricks, when charged with any weighty body. GUY-PENDENTS. See PENDENTS. HAGSTEETH. Those parts of pointing, matting, or the like, which are intertwisted with the rest in an irregular manner. HALIARDS. Ropes or tackles employed to hoist or lower yards, sails, and flags, upon the masts, yards, stays, &c. HAND-TIGHT. A moderate degree of tension on a rope, as to make it straight. HANKS. Rings made of iron, or hoopsticks bent in a circular form, fixed on the stays to confine the staysails. TO HAUL. To pull on a rope. HEAD-LINE. See Lines. HEAD-NETTING. See Netting. HEART. A peculiar sort of dead-eye, resembling a heart: it has one large hole in the middle, to contain the laniard, by which the stays or shrouds are extended. HEAVER. A short wooden staff, used as a lever in setting up the topmast-shrouds, strapping of blocks, and seizing the rigging, &c. HEAVING. The aft of turning about a capstern, &c. by means of bars, or handspikes. HEEL-ROPE. See Rope. HITCH. A noose, by which one rope is fastened to another, or to some object, as a ring, post, timber-head, &c. HOIST OF A FLAG OR SAIL. That part which is towards the staff, or bent to a mast or stay. HOISTING. Drawing up a weight by tackles. HOLDING-ON. The act of pulling back and retaining any quantity of rope, acquired by the effort of a capstern, or tackle; also the end of a stopper, nipper, &c. held by the hand. HOOPS. Thin bars of iron, of circular, and other shapes. Clasp-hoops are similar to other hoops, but open with a hinge. Buoy-hoops are the wooden hoops that confine the buoy; and the wreaths of rope that go round the buoy, to which the straps are fastened. Wooden-hoops are those which encircle mast, and to which the fore-leech of some sails are bent. HORNS. The jaws, or semi-circular inner ends of booms and gaffs. HORSE. A machine with which the operation of woolding is performed. HORSES. Ropes for the men to stand upon, or hold by, &c. Bowsprit-horses are made fast at the ends, at a parallel height from the bowsprit, and serve as rails for the men to hold by, when going out upon the bowsprit. Flemish-horses are small horses under the yards without the cleats. |
Jib-horses hang under the jib-boom, and are knotted at certain distances, to prevent the men’s feet slipping. Traverse-horses are of rope, or iron, for sails to travel on, &c. The one of rope is thick, and extended up and down, parallel to the mast; that on the fore-side is for hoisting or lowering the square-sail, whose yard is attached to the horse by a traveller, and slides up and down occasionally. The horse fixed abaft the mast is for the trysail of a snow, which slides up and down with hanks as a staysail. This is seldom used but in sloops of war, which occasionally assume the form of snows. Horses of iron are thick iron rods, fastened at the ends athwart the deck of single-mast vessels, before the mast, for the foresail-sheet to travel on; and that abaft the mast, across the inside of the stern, on which travels the main-sheet-block. Yard-horses are ropes depending from the yards, for the men to stand upon in loosing, reefing, or furling the sails. HOUNDS. That part of the mast-head which gradually projects on the starboard and larboard sides, beyond the cylindrical surface below. HOUSE-LINE. See Lines. JACK-BLOCK. A small block seized to the topgallant-mast-head, for sending the topgallant-yards up and down. JAMBED. Obstructed and rendered immoveable. JAWS. Two cheeks, forming a semi-circle, which enclose the after-part of the mast, so as to confine, by the help of the parral, the inner end of the boom or gaff. JEARS. Tackles for hoisting or lowering the lower yards. JEAR-BITTS. See Bitts. JEWEL-BLOCKS. Small blocks, seized to eye-bolts in the extremities of the upper yards, for hoisting the studding-sails by the haliards, which reeve through them. JIB-BOOM. See Boom. JIB-HORSES. See Horses. JIGGER. A Short rope fitted, with a block and a sheave, for holding on the cable as it is hove in by a windlass. JIGGER-TACKLE. See Tackle. INHAULER. A rope employed to haul in the jib-boom, &c. IRON-HORSES. See Horses. JUNK. Short pieces of old cable, used for mooring ships’ sterns, or cut into smaller portions for making mats, rope-bands, points, gaskets, &c. KECKLING. Any old rope wound about a cable, to preserve the surface of it from chafing. KEVELS. Two crooked pieces of timber, whose lower ends rest in a step or foot nailed to the ship’s sides; the heads branch out like horns, to belay ropes to. KINKING. The curling up of a rope when twisted too hard, or drawn hastily out of the coil. KNOTS. The fastenings by which one rope is joined to another; or the knobs formed on their ends to prevent their slipping. LACING. Fastening the head of a sail to a mast, yard, gaff, &c. by a line turned spirally round them, and reeved through the eyelet-holes in the sail. When a sail is laced to a mast, it is best to take cross turns, backwards and forwards, on the fore-side of the mast only, so that the sail may slide up or down. LANIARDS. Short small ropes to make fast the shrouds, stays, &c. LASHERS. The ropes employed to lash, or secure particular objects, as jears, &c. LASHING. Fastening or securing one thing to another, with several turns of a rope. LEADING-PART. That part of a tackle which is hauled upon. |
LEGS. Short ropes which branch out into two or more parts, as the bowline-legs or bridles, buntline-legs, crowfoot-legs, &c. LIFE-LINES. See Lines. LIFTS. Ropes which suspend the outer-quarters of the yards, and raise or lower them. Standing-Lifts are made fast, and belong to yards that never require to be topped. LINES. Cordage smaller than ropes, and formed of two or more fine strands of hemp; as House-line, made of three strands, used to seize blocks into their straps and the clues of sails; and to marl the skirts of sails to their bolt-ropes, &c. Log-line, made of three or more strands, and used for the log, &c. Marline, made of two strands, and used for the same purposes as house-line. Some ropes are, from their situations, termed lines; as Bowlines, Buntlines, Clue-lines, Fancy-line, Furling-line, Girt-line, Head-line, Leech-lines, Life-lines, Nave-line, Slab-line, Spilling-lines, Tow-line, and, Tracing-line. Bowlines are fastened on and near the middle of the leech of square sails, by two or three subordinate parts, called bridles; and are used to brace sideways, or close-haul to the wind, the weather, or windward, leeches of the sails forward; which are kept steady by the tension of the bowline. Buntlines are ropes fastened to the foot of square sails, to haul them up to their yards. Clue-lines are similar to the clue-garnets, and are used to square sails in general; whereas clue-garnets are confined to the main and fore courses. Fancy-line is a rope used to overhaul the brails of some fore and aft sails. Furling-line is a small rope, or a line, used to fasten small sails to the yards, when furled. Girt-line is a rope reeved through a single block, occasionally lashed to mast and sheer heads, to hoist up rigging, &c. Head-line is the line sewed along the upper edge of flags to strengthen them. Leech-lines are ropes used to truss up the sails. Life-lines, for the preservation of the seamen, are worn hawser-laid rope: they make fast with two half hitches round the strap of the lift-block and jeer, or tye-blocks in the middle of the yard. Nave-line is a tackle depending from the mast-head to the trusses, to keep them opposite the yards, whilst hoisting or lowering. Slab-line is a rope used to truss up the foot of the main and fore courses occasionally, for the pilot or master to look forward underneath, as the ship advances. Spilling-lines are ropes reeved through blocks, lashed on each side of the quarter-blocks of the lower yards, then lead down before the sail, return upwards under the foot, and make fast round the yard with a timber hitch: spilling-lines of topsails have two legs, which are each made fast with a timber-hitch round the quarters of the topsail yards, then lead down on the aftside, return upwards under the foot of the sail, and reeve through a block on the fore-side, lashed to the tye-block on the yard, and then lead upon deck abaft the mast. Tow-line is a small hawser, used to remove any vessel, by means of anchors, capsterns, &c. Tracing-line is a small rope or tackle used to hoist any object to a higher station, and render it more convenient; such are the tracing-lines of the yard-tackles; the inner tracing-line hoists the block, and the outer tracing-line, the parts of the tackle. LIZARD. An iron thimble spliced into the main-bowlines, and pointed over to hook a tackle to. LOG-LINES. See Lines. LOOP. A noose made in a rope. LOOSING THE SAILS. Unfurling them for setting, or for drying, when wet. LOWER SHROUDS. See Shrouds. LOWER STAYS. See Stays. LUFF TACKLE. See Tackle. MAIN-STAY-TACKLE-PENDENTS. See Pendents. MAIN-BOOM. See Boom. |
MAN-ROPES. See Ropes. MARLINE. See Lines. MARLING-SPIKE. A tapered iron pin, with a globular head, used to make openings between the strands of ropes for introducing the ends of others through them: it is sometimes used as a lever to strain tight seizings, &c. MARTINGAL. An ash bar, fixed downwards from the fore-side of the bowsprit-cap, and by which the martingal-stay supports the jib-boom. MASTS. Long cylindrical pieces of timber, to which are fastened the yards, sails, and rigging. See the treatise on masts. MARTINGAL-STAY. See Stay. MAST-COATS. Coverings made of well tarred canvas to prevent the water going down the mast-hole. MAT. A thick texture made of spunyarn, strands of rope, or foxes, wove or plaited together, and fastened upon masts, yards, &c. to prevent their chafing. MESSENGER. A cable-laid rope, used to heave in the cable. MESHES. The spaces between the lines of a netting. MOUSE. A large knob, in the shape of a pear, formed on stays; also a smaller one round messengers, by intertwisting a small rope round the strands. MOUSING A HOOK. Taking several turns of spunyarn round the back and point of a hook, and fastening it, to prevent its unhooking. NAVE-LINE. See Lines. NETTING. A fence made by seizing together the bights of small ropes, leaving uniform spaces or meshes between: it is used in different parts of a ship; thus, the Boarding-netting is thrown over the sides, to prevent the enemies boarding. Bowsprit-netting is fastened at the outer end of the bowsprit to the horses, or man-ropes, to stow away the fore-topmast-staysail and jib. Breastwork, Gangway, Quarter, and Waist Nettings, are used to keep the hammacoes in the stantions. Head-netting is fastened to the horses in the head and upper rail, to save the men from slipping overboard. Quarter-deck-netting is suspended over the officers heads, to prevent any thing falling thereon, in time of action. Top-netting is fastened to the rail, shrouds, and top, to preserve the men from falling. To NIPPER or NIP ropes, is to stop them with several turns of rope-yarn, or spun-yarn, round each, and the ends made fast. NIPPERS. Braided cordage 12 or 14 feet long, used in heaving in the cable by the viol, or messenger. NORMAN. A short wooden bar, with a head, used in one of the holes of the windlass, when there is little strain on the cable. OAKUM. Old ropes untwisted and picked small. OVERHAULING. Extending the several parts of a tackle, or ropes, connected to blocks or dead-eyes, to any distance required. OUTHAULER. A rope made fast to the tack of the jib, to haul it out by. PAINTER. A rope secured to the bow of a boat to make her fast with. PANCH. A covering of wood, or a thick texture made of plaited rope-yarn, larger than a mast, to preserve the masts, &c. from chafing. PARCELLING. Wrapping worn canvas round ropes, to prepare them for serving. PARRAL. A sort of collar, by which the yards are fastened at the slings to the masts, so that they may be hoisted or lowered with facility. Of parrals there are four sorts, viz. one sort is formed |
of a single rope, covered with spunyarn or leather, and having an eye spliced in each end; another sort is formed of two ropes, which reeve alternately through a rib and truck, and have an eye in one end; a third sort, calculated to confine the jaws of a jib-boom to the mast, is formed of a rope which reeves through several trucks without ribs; and a fourth sort is formed of a truss, by which the yard may at any time be slackened from the mast, or may be confined close by tackles connected to their lower ends, which lead upon deck, and are most convenient for the lower yards. The first and second sorts are used for topsail and topgallant yards. PARRAL-TRUCKS. See Trucks. PASSAREE. Any rope fastened round the cat-head and fore-tack, to keep tight the leech of the sail in light winds. To PAY OUT. To let a cable or other rope run out of the vessel. PEEK-HALIARDS. The ropes by which the outer end of a gaff or yard, that hangs oblique to a mast, is hoisted. PENDENTS. Large, but short, ropes which go over the mast-heads, and to which are hooked the main and fore tackles. There are, besides, many other pendents, with a block or tackle attached to one end, all of which serve to transmit the effort of their tackles to some other object: such are the Bill-pendent, Brace-pendents, Preventer-brace-pendents, Burton-pendents, Fish-pendents, Guy-pendents, Main-stay-tackle-pendent, Pendents of tackles, Quarter-tackle-pendents, reef-tackle-pendents, Rudder-pendents, Stay-tackle-pendents, Top-rope-pendents, Truss-pendents, Vang-pendents, Winding-tackle-pendents, and Yard-tackle-pendents. PINS, for belaying ropes to, are turned wooden pins, with a shoulder near the middle; the small end is driven through the rough tree rails, or racks of thin plank made on purpose. Iron belaying-pins are round, taper from the middle to each end, and are driven in the rails, or racks, to belay the ropes to, by taking several cross turns about them. POINTING. Tapering the end of a rope, or splice, and working over the reduced part a small close netting, with an even number of knittles twisted from the same, to prevent the end untwisting, and to go more easily through a block or hole. POINTS. Short pieces of braided cordage plaited together. PORT-TACKLE. See Tackle. PREVENTER. An additional rope employed, sometimes to support or answer the purpose: of another that has a great strain or is injured. Such are the Preventer-braces, Shrouds, Stays, &c. PREVENTER-STAYS. See Stays. PREVENTER-SHROUDS. See Shrouds. PREVENTER-STAY-TACKLE. See Tackle. PREVENTER-BRACE-PENDENT. See Pendents. PUDDENING. A thick wreath, made of rope, fastened about the main and fore masts of a ship, to prevent their yards from falling down, when the ropes that support them are injured. QUARTER-CLOTH. Canvas nailed with sennit along the rough-tree-rail on the quarter-deck, and to the plank-sheer, to keep out the spray of the sea. RACK. A short thin plank, with holes made through it, containing a number of belaying-pins, used instead of cleats: it is seized to the shrouds, and nailed over the bowsprit or windlass. |
RACK. A long shell, containing a number of sheaves, formerly fixed over the bowsprit to lead in the running rigging; at present, wooden saddles, with holes in them, are nailed on the bowsprit for this purpose, being more out of the way, and less liable to be out of order. RACKING A TACKLE. Fastening together the fall of a tackle, or any two ropes, by passing two or more cross turns with rope-yarn round each part, and as many round turns above them; making fast the ends with a reef-knot. RANGE-CLEATS. Large cleats, with two arms, bolted in the waist of ships, to belay the tacks and sheets to. RATLINGS. Small ropes which cross the shrouds horizontally, at equal distances from the deck upwards, forming ladders to go up or down from the mast-heads. REEF. That portion of a sail contained between the head or foot, and a row of eyelet-holes parallel thereto, which portion is taken up to reduce the surface of the sail when the wind encreases. Sails, according to their sizes, have from one to four reefs. A Bag-reef is the fourth, or lower, reef of a topsail. A Balance-reef crosses boom-mainsails diagonally, from the nock to the end of the upper reef-band on the after-leech. REEF-TACKLE. See Tackle. REEF-TACKLE-PENDENTS. See Pendents. To REEVE. To pass a rope through a block or hole. RELIEVING-TACKLES. See Tackles. RIBS OF A PARRAL. Short flat pieces of wood, having a hole near each end, through which the parral-rope is reeved. RIDING-BIT. See Bits. RIDGE-TACKLE. See Tackle. RING-TAIL-BOOM. See Boom. RING-ROPE. See Ropes. RING-BOLT. An iron bolt, with a ring fitted in an eye in the end. ROLLING-TACKLE. See Tackle. ROPE-BANDS. Braided cordage, used to fasten the heads of sails to their respective yards. ROPES. All cordage in general above one inch in circumference, which bear different names, according to their various uses. Bell-rope is hawser-laid rope, 9 or 12 feet in length, which bends round a thimble in the eye of the bell or crank. In the middle of the rope is a diamond knot, and at the end a double wall knot, crowned. Bolt-rope, is the rope sewed to the skirts, or edges of sails. BUOY-ROPE, a rope fastened to the buoy of the anchor. Breast-rope is fastened along the laniards of the shrouds, for safety, when heaving the lead in the chains. DAVIT-ROPE, the lashing which secures the davit to the shrouds, when out of use. Entering-ropes hang from the upper part of the stantions, along-side the ladder, at the gangways. Guest-rope is fastened to an eye-bolt in the ship’s side, and to the outer end of a boom projecting from the ship’s side, by guys, to keep the boats clear off the sides. Heel-rope is to haul out the bowsprits of cutters, &c. Man-ropes are for the security of the men, when going out on the bowsprit. Parral-ropes are to connect the ribs and trucks of parrals together. Passing-ropes lead round the ship, through eyes in the quarter, waist, gangway, and forecastle stantions, forward to the knight-heads. |
Ring-ropes are occasionally made fast to the ring-bolts in the deck, and, by cross turns round the cable, to confine it securely in stormy weather. Slip-rope is to trice the bight of the cable into the head; and is also employed in casting off vessel, till got in a tide’s way, &c. Tiller-rope is the rope by which the tiller is worked. Top-rope, is a rope reeved through the heel of a topmast, to raise it by its tackle to the mast-head. ROPE-YARN. One of the threads of which a rope is composed. ROUGH-TREE-RAIL. A rail, breast high, along the sides of the poop and quarter-deck. ROUNDING. Serving the cable with worn rope, or sennit to secure it from chafing. ROWSING. Pulling upon a cable or rope, without the assistance of capsterns, &c. ROYAL-STAY. See Stay. ROYAL-YARD. See Yard. RUDDER-COATS. Coverings made of well tarred canvas, to prevent the water from coming in at the rudder-hole. RUDDER-TACKLE. See Tackle. RUDDER-PENDENTS. See Pendents. RUNNER. A single rope, connected with a tackle, which transmits its effort the same as if the tackle was the whole length; such are the BREAST-BACKSTAY-RUNNER, RUNNERS OF TACKLES, &c. RUNNING-RIGGING. All that part of rigging which traverses through blocks, &c. SADDLES FOR BOOMS. Small blocks of wood, hollowed on their lower and upper sides, and nailed on the yards and bowsprits, for retaining booms in a steady position. The lower-side is hollowed, to fit the convexity of the yard it is intended for; and the upper-side to the figure of the boom, as a channel for it to slide on. SADDLES, on the bowsprit, for leading the rigging through, are semi-circles made to fit the convex surface of the bowsprit; they are rounded On the back, and have several holes made in the sides, through a which the rigging is led, when they are nailed to the inner part of the bowsprit, SAILS. See the treatise on sails. SEIZING. Joining two ropes, or the two ends of one rope, together, &c. by taking several close turns of small rope, line, or spunyarn, round them. End-seizing is a round seizing on the end of a rope. Throat-seizing is the first seizing claps on where a rope, or ropes, cross each other. Middle-seizing, is a seizing between a throat and end seizing. Eye-seizing, is a round seizing next the eye of a shroud, &c. SELVAGEE. Several rope yarns turned into a circular form, and marled together with spunyarn. It is used to attach the hook of a tackle to any rope, shroud, or stay, to extend, or set them up: two or more turns of the selvagee are taken round the same, in which the hook is fixed. SENNIT. Braided cordage, formed of rope-yarn. SERVING. Encircling a rope with line or spunyarn, &c. to preserve it from being chafed. SERVING-MALLET. A cylindrical piece of wood, with a handle in the middle: it is used for serving, and has a groove along the surface opposite to the handle, which fits the convexity of the rope to be served. SETTING THE SAILS. Loosing and expanding them. SETTING-UP. Encreasing the tension of the shrouds, stays, and backstays, to secure the masts by tackles, laniards, &c. SHACKLE. A sort of iron ring, to hook a tackle to. |
SHANK-PAINTER. A short rope and chain bolted to the ship’s sides, above the fore channels, to hang or secure the shank of an anchor to; the flukes resting in a chock on the gunwale.SHEEP-SHANK. A sort of knot made on backstays, &c. to shorten them.SHEET. A rope or tackle fastened to the clues of sails, to retain them in any direction. SHEET-STOPPERS. See Stoppers. SHIFTING-BACKSTAY-TACKLE. See Tackle. SHROUDS. A range of large ropes, extended from the mast-heads to the larboard and starboard sides of the vessel, to support the mast, &c. The shrouds are denominated from the places to which they belong; thus: the fore, main, and mizen shrouds ; fore, main, and mizen-topmast shrouds, &c. The number and size of the shrouds are in proportion to the size of the masts, as in the annexed Tables of Dimensions. Bowsprit-shrouds, are those which support the bowsprit. Bumkin-shrouds, are those which support the bumkins. Futtock-shrouds, are shrouds which connect the efforts of the topmast shrouds to the lower shrouds. Bentinck-shrouds, are additional shrouds, to support the masts in heavy gales. Preventer-shrouds, are similar to bentinck-shrouds, and are used in bad weather to ease the lower rigging. SHROUD-TRUCKS. See Trucks. SHROUD-STOPPERS. See Stoppers. SLINGS. Short ropes, used to hang the yards to the mast, &c. or to encircle a bale or cask, and suspend it whilst hoisting or lowering; and also to secure buoys, &c. To SLUE. To turn a mast, or boom, about in its cap, or boom-iron, &c. SNAKING. A sort of fastening to confine the outer turns of seizings, &c. SNAKING the STAYS, or ropes, on the quarters, instead of netting, is seizing proportioned sized rope, at angles, from one stay or rope to the other, alternately, in a parallel direction along the whole length. Its use to stays is, that one part may remain perfect and independent of the other, should it be shot away. SNOTTER. A short rope, spliced together at the ends, and served with spunyarn, or covered with hide: it is seized to the size of the mast, leaving a bight to fit the lower end of a sprit, which it confines to the mast. SPANS. Short ropes, having a block, thimble, or eye, spliced into each end; the middle is hitched round a mast, yard, gaff, cap, or stay, from whence the ends branch out. Spans are sometimes fastened at both ends, and have a block in the bight. They are used to lead ropes through, which pass through the blocks or thimbles, to encrease power, or to prevent their swinging about. SPANNING of BOOMS. Confining them by ropes. SPANNING of RUNNERS. Taking several turns with small rope round both runners abaft the mast, and frapping the turns. SPANISH WINDLASS. See Windlass. SPARS. Small fir-trees. SPILLING-LINES. See Lines. SPLICING. Joining one rope to another, by interweaving their ends, or uniting the end of a rope into another part of it. There are different sorts of splices, viz. the Cunt-splice, which forms an eye in the middle of a rope: the Eye-splice forms an eye or circle at the end of a rope on itself, or round a block, &c. The Long-splice is made to rejoin a rope or ropes intended to reeve through a |
block without encreasing its size: the Short-splice is made by untwisting the ends of a rope, or of two ropes, and placing the strands of one between those of the other. The Tapered-splice is chiefly used on cables, and is made as the short-splice, but is gradually tapered toward each end, by cutting away some of the rope-yarns, and is served over: the Drawing-splice, is a splice used for joining cables together, and is esteemed the best for this purpose, as it may be readily undone. SPRIT. A small yard, or pole, by which spritsails are extended. The foot of it is fixed in a Snotter, which encircles the mast, and it crosses the sail diagonally, the upper end being attached to the peek. SPUNYARN. Two or more rope-yarns twisted together. SQUARE-RIGGED. A term applied to those ships which have long yards, at right angles with the length of the keel, and low masts: it is thence used in contra-distinction to those vessels whose sails are extended by stays, latteen-yards, &c. SQUARE-SAIL-BOOM. See Boom. STAFF. A light pole on which the flags are hoisted. The Ensign-staff, is the principal staff, and is erected on the stern, within-side the tafferel, to display the ensign. Flag-staffs are also erected on the mast-heads, or formed by the upper part of the topgallant masts, to hoist the flags, royals, &c. The Jack-staff is a short staff erected on the aftside of the bowsprit-cap, to expand the jack. STAGE. A small platform made of grating, or of short boards, for men to stand upon to fix the rigging toward the outer end of the bowsprit, &c. STANDING-PART. That part of a tackle which is made fast. STANDING PART OF A ROPE, (in the making of knots, &c.) means the principal part of a rope, in contra-distinction to the end by which the knot is formed; or it may be said to be that part of a rope which is at rest, and is acted upon by the end. STANTIONS OF THE NETTINGS. Square wooden pillars, set into the upper part of the ship’s side, or small pillars of iron, used to support the nettings, awnings, &c. STAYS. Strong ropes, to support the masts forward, which extend from their upper part, at the mast-head, toward the fore part of the ship. The stays are denominated from the masts, LOWER-STAYS, TOPMAST-STAYS, TOPGALLANT-STAYS, FLAGSTAFF or ROYAL STAYS, &.c. BACKSTAYS, BREAST, SHIFTING, and STANDING, are stays which support the topmasts and topgallant masts from aft; they reach from the heads of the topmast and topgallant-mast to the channel on each side of the ship, and assist the shrouds when strained by a press of sail. The shifting backstays change according to the action of the wind upon the sails, whether aft, or upon the quarter. BOB-STAYS, are stays used to confine the bowsprit down upon the stem, and counteract the force of the stays, which draw it upwards. STAYSAIL-STAYS, are those stays on which the staysails are extended. The JIB-STAY is similar to the staysail-stays, and extends the jib. The MARTINGAL-STAY supports the jib-boom, as the bobstays support the bowsprit. PREVENTER-SPRING-STAYS, are subordinate stays to support their respective stays, and supply their places in case of any accident. SKIATIC-STAYS are ropes used for hoisting, or lowering, burdens in or out of ships. STAYSAIL-STAY-TACKLE. See Tackle. STAY-TACKLE-PENDENTS. See Pendents. STERNFAST. A rope to confine the sterns of boats, &c. |
STIRRUPS. Short ropes, which have their upper ends plaited and nailed round the yards: eyes made in their lower ends, through which the horses are reeved, to keep them parallel to the yards. STOOLS. Small channels, fixed to the ship’s sides, to contain the dead-eyes for the backstays. STOP. Several turns of spunyarn taken round the end of a rope, similar to a seizing, to fasten it to another rope. Also, a projection left on the upper part of topgallant-masts, &c. to prevent the rigging from sliding down. STOPPERS. Short ropes, used to check the cable, suspend weighty bodies, and retain the shrouds, &c. in a fixed position, after being damaged, or otherwise. Anchor-stoppers are used to suspend the anchor, when catted: Bitt-stoppers are those stoppers used to check the cable: Deck-stoppers are used to retain the cable when the ship is riding at anchor: Dog-stoppers are used as additional securities when the ship is riding in heavy gales, or bringing up a ship with much sternway, to prevent the cable from snapping at the bitts, and to ease the deck-stoppers: Wing-stoppers are used for the same purposes as dog-stoppers: Shroud-stoppers are used to confine a shroud together, when damaged, or shot. Fore-tack, and Sheet, Stoppers, are for securing the tacks and sheets, till belayed. STRAPS. Wreaths of ropes which are spliced round blocks, or used to encircle a yard or any large rope, by which tackles, &c. may be connected to them. STUDDINGSAIL-BOOM. See Boom. STUDDINGSAIL-YARDS. See Yards. To SURGE. To let a cable, or rope, round a capstern slide up it, by gently slacking the part held on. To SWAY. To haul down upon a rope or cable. SWIFTERS. The after shrouds on each side of the main and fore masts: they are above all the other shrouds, and are used as an additional security to the masts. Swifter is also a small rope used: to confine the bars of a capstern in their holes, while the men are heaving it about; and likewise a large rope, sometimes used lengthways round a boat under the gunwale, to strengthen it, and defend it from other boats which may strike against it. SWIFTERING of SHROUDS. Stretching of them by tackles, to prevent any future extension. SWIGGING OFF. Pulling upon the middle of a tight rope that is made fast at both ends. TACKS. Ropes used to confine the foremost lower corners of courses, and of staysails, and other fore and aft sails; also the rope employed to haul out the lower corners of studdingsails. Tack is also applied to that part of a sail to which the tack is fastened. TACK OF A FLAG. A line spliced into the eye at the bottom of the tabling, for securing the flag to the haliard. TACK-STOPPER. See Stopper. TACKLE. A machine formed by the connection of a rope or fall, with an assemblage of blocks. The number of parts of the fall is more or less, in proportion to the effects intended to be produced. That part of the fall which is fastened to one of the blocks, is called the Standing-part, and the other parts of it are called the Running-part. Tackles are used to raise, or remove, weighty bodies; to support the masts, extend the rigging, or expand the sails. They are either moveable, as connecting with a runner, or have one part fixed to an immoveable station, by a hook, lashing, &c. A tackle is a convenient kind of purchase, but subject to much friction. Its power will be, the friction not considered, as the number of parts of the fall that are applied to sustain the weigh. If a |
tackle consists of a double and a single block, and the weight to be hoisted is hung to the double block, there will be four parts of the fall; and the weight resting upon four ropes, equally stretched, each must bear the same part of the weight. Thus, suppose the weight hung to the double block be four hundred, then one hundred applied to the hauling part of the fall will suspend it; and if as much more power be applied as will overcome the friction, it will purchase the weight: but, had the weight been hooked to the single block, it would have rested on three ropes only, each of which would bear a third of the weight; therefore a third of the weight being applied to the hoisting part of the fall, would suspend the weight, when hooked to the single block; and as much more power being applied as will overcome the friction, would purchase the weight. Ropes, if tight laid, will not easily bend round small sheaves, but will take up a considerable part of the power to force them into their proper direction; hence it follows, that blocks with small pins, large sheaves, and slack-laid ropes, are the best materials to obviate friction, and make tackles with. The blocks that are fixed, are only for the convenience of turning the direction of the fall, they add nothing to the power of the purchase, but, on the contrary, destroy so much as is necessary to overcome their friction, and are therefore to be avoided as much as possible. The Anchor-stock Tackle is composed of a double block, and a single block, strapped, with a hook and thimble. Boom Tackles are composed of double and single blocks, strapped, with tails, and are used in getting the studding-sail-booms in or out. Bowline Tackle is composed of a long tackle, and a single block, strapped, with a hook and thimble: it is used to bowse up the main-bowline, when the ship is upon a wind. Burton Tackles are composed of double and single blocks, and are used with pendents, to set up the shrouds, support the topsail-yards, &c. A Fish Tackle is composed of a long tackle, and a single block, strapped, with eyes, and is used with a pendent, to fish the anchor, and get it into its place. Garnet Tackle is composed of a double block, and a single block, strapped, with a hook and thimble: it is hooked to the skiatick-stay in merchant ships, and is used to hoist goods in or out. Jigger Tackles are composed of double and single blocks, strapped, with tails, and are used for topping the main and fore yards by the lifts, &c. Luff Tackles are composed of double and single blocks, strapped, with a hook and thimble, and are used occasionally at any of the ship. Outhauler Tackle is composed of two single blocks, strapped, with tails, and is used to bowse out the jib-boom. Port Tackles are used to hoist and lower the port-lids. Quarter Tackles are composed of double and single blocks, strapped, with eyes, and the lower blocks with a hook and thimble: they are used to hoist up water, and provisions. Reef Tackles are composed of two double, or two single, blocks; one block is spliced into a pendent, and the other is strapped, with an eye: they are used to draw the extremities of the reefs close up to the yard-arms, for reefing the sail. Relieving Tackles are luff tackles, used to the fore-end of the tiller, when the tiller ropes are damaged. Ridge Tackle is composed of a double block, and a single block, strapped, with an eye: it is used to suspend the awning in the middle. Rolling Tackles are luff tackles, used to the topsail-yards, to support them, and preserve the parrals. Rudder Tackles are composed of long tackle blocks, and single blocks, strapped, with hooks and thimbles: they are used to save, or direct the rudder, when any accident happens to the tiller. Runner Tackles are composed of double and single blocks, and a pendent; the lower blocks are strapped, with a hook and thimble: they are used to set up the shrouds, and to get the mast-heads forward, for staying the masts. Stay Tackles, Main and Fore, are composed of double and single blocks, strapped, with hooks and thimbles, except the blocks spliced into a pendent: they are used for getting the pro- |
visions, &c. out of the fore and main hold, and for getting the boats in or out. The pendent, formerly, travelled on the stay, by iron thimbles; but this is now discontinued in the Royal Navy, they much injured the stay, by the friction. Staysail Stay Tackles are composed of double and single blocks; the lower blocks are strapped, with a hook and thimble; they are used to set up the jib, and other staysail-stays. Shifting Backstay Tackles are composed of double and single blocks, strapped, with a hook and thimble, and are used to set up the shifting backstays, where wanted. Topmast Stay, and Preventer Stay, Tackles are composed of long tackle blocks, and single blocks; the lower blocks are strapped, with a hook and thimble; they are used to set up the topmast, and preventer stays. Fore Topgallant Stay Tackle is composed of a double and a single block, and is used to set up the fore topgallant stay. Tack Tackle is composed of a double and a single block, strapped, with hooks and thimbles; and is used for bowsing down the tack of fore and aft mainsails. The Top Tackle is composed of double or treble blocks: it is attached to the top-rope-pendent, and used to erect the topmasts, at the heads of the lower masts. Truss Tackles are composed of two double blocks, strapped, with hooks and thimbles, and are used to secure the lower yards to their masts, being hooked to the truss-pendent. Winding Tackle is composed of a four-fold and a treble block, or a treble and a double block, strapped, with eyes: it is attached to the winding-tackle-pendent, and is chiefly used to get in and out the guns. Yard Tackles are composed of double and single blocks; the double blocks are spliced into the lower ends of pendents, and the single blocks are strapped, with hooks and thimbles: they are used to hoist the boats in or out. TACKLE-FALL. That end of the rope of a tackle which is bowsed on, or the rope which composes the tackle. TACKLE-PENDENTS. See Pendents. TAIL. The long end of a block-strap, by which the block is attached to any place required. TARPAWLING. Canvas paid over with tar, and used to cover the hatches, to prevent water from coming in; and to cover the blocks at the sheer-heads of hulks, &c. THIMBLES. A kind of iron rings, whose outsides are grooved, to receive ropes of different sizes. They are fixed to the rigging for blocks to be hooked to, and for ropes to reeve through, &c. THROAT. The inner end of a gaff, or boom. TILLAR-ROPE. See Rope. THRUMMING. Interplacing short pieces of thrumbs, or rope-yarn, in a regular manner, into matting, through intervals made by a fid. TIMENOGUY. A Rope fastened at one end to the fore-shrouds, and nailed at the other end to the anchor-stock, on the bow, to prevent the fore-sheet from entangling. TONGUE. A short piece of rope spliced into the upper part of standing-backstays, &c. to the size of the topmast-heads: it is served over with spun-yarn, and is used to keep them open to the size of the mast-heads. TOP. A platform, surrounding the lower mast-heads, to extend the topmast-shrouds, &c. TOP-ROPE. See Rope. TOP-ROPE-PENDENTS. See Pendents TOP-TACKLE. See Tackle. TOPMAST-STAY-TACKLE. See Tackle. |
TOPPING. The act of drawing one of the yard-arms higher than the other, by slackening one lift, and pulling upon the other. TOPPING-LIFT. A tackle to suspend, or TOP, the outer end of a gaff, boom, &c. TOPSAIL-YARDS. See Yards. TOPGALLANT-YARDS. See Yards. TOP-NETTING. See Netting. TRACING-LINE. See Line. TRAVELLER. A large iron thimble, whose diameter is larger than the common thimbles, though the surface is smaller. Travellers are used to facilitate the descent of topgallant-yards by the back-stays, the travellers being placed on the back-stays, and surrounded by a short rope, or tail, which is fastened round the yard-arms. The Jib-traveller is a circular iron hoop, with a hook and shackle, used to haul out the tack of the jib. TRAVERSE-HORSES. See Horses. TREE NAILS. Cylindrical wooden pins, used by riggers for levers, or heavers; also the wooden pins by which the ship’s planks are fastened to the timbers. TRESTLE-TREES. Two strong bars of oak, bolted to the ‘thwartship sides of the lower mast heads, to support the top, and weight of the topmast; and to the topmast heads, to support the top-gallant-masts, &c. TRUCKS. Small pieces of wood, of various shapes, used for different purposes. Flag-staff-trucks are round flat pieces of elm, with a small sheave on each side. They are fixed, by a square mortise-hole made in the middle, upon the upper end of flag-staffs, and are used to reeve the haliards. Parral-trucks are round balls of elm, or other wood, and have a hole through the middle, in which a rope is reeved, to form the parrals. Seizing-trucks are similar to parral-trucks, but have a score round the middle to admit a seizing. They are used to lead ropes through. Shroud-trucks are short cylindrical pieces of elm, &c. they have a hole through the middle, lengthways, a groove down the side, of the size of the shrouds, and a score round the middle to admit a seizing. They are seized to the shrouds, to lead ropes through, that they may be more readily found. TRUSS. A rope employed to confine or slacken the lower-yards to or from their respective masts. TRUSS-TACKLE. See Tackle. TRUSS-PENDENTS. See Pendents. TYE. A sort of runner, or large rope, used to convey the effort of the tackle to hoist the upper yards and gaff. VANGS. The braces that keep steady the peek of gaff sails and fore-and-aft sails. VANG-PENDENT. See Pendents. To VEER AWAY. To let go a rope gently. WARP. A hawser, used to remove a ship from one place to another. WARP, or more properly WOOF, is the twine or thread woven across the knittles in pointing. WARP OF SHROUDS. The first given length, taken from the bolster at the mast-lead to the foremost dead-eye. WHIP. A small single tackle, formed by connecting the fall to a single block, or with two blocks, the one fixed, and the other moveable: it is used to hoist light bodies out of the hold, &c. |
To WHIP. To turn a piece of pack-thread, &c. upon the end of a rope, to prevent its unravelling. WHIP upon WHIP. The greatest purchase that can be gained by blocks, which is formed by fixing the end of one whip upon another whip fall. Thus two single block will afford the same purchase as a tackle, having a double and a single block, and with much less friction. This purchase should therefore be used whenever the length of the hoist will admit of it. To topsail, and topgallant-yards, that hoist with a single tye, there is sufficient room to apply this purchase as haliards, which will overhaul with great facility. WINDING TACKLE. See Tackle. WINDING TACKLE-PENDENT. See Pendent. WINDLASS. A machine, used in most merchant ships, to answer the purpose of a capstern. A Spanish Windlass is formed of an iron bolt, placed in a hole, which is hove round by a woolder that acts as a lever for turning it round. It is used to stretch small rigging for serving, &c. &c. WOOLDING. Winding several close turns of rope in a tight manner round masts and yards, that are made of several united pieces, to strengthen and confine the same together. WORMING. Winding a rope close along the cuntlines, to strengthen it, and make a fair surface for service. YARDS. Long cylindrical pieces of fir timber hung upon the masts of ships, to expand the sails to the wind. The lower yards to which the courses are bent, are the largest; such are the main, fore, and mizen yards which, except the mizen, hang to the masts at right angles with the ship’s length. The Mizen-yard, hangs obliquely to the mizen-mast, parallel to the ship’s length. The Topsail-yards which expand the topsails, hang to the topmasts, next above the lower yards. The Topgallant-yards, which expand the topgallant-sails, hang above them; and the Royal-yards, which expand the royal-sails are hung above the topgallant-yards. The Cross-jack-yard is used to expand the foot of the mizen topsail; and the topsail, or square-sail, of vessels with one mast. The Driver-yard is a small yard, which expands the head of the driver without the peek of the gaff, to which it is hoisted by haliards. Studding-sail-yards, hang to the extremities of the yards, and by these are expanded the heads of the studding-sails. YARD-TACKLE. See Tackle. YARD-HORSES. See Horses. |
Rigging Pl. 3.
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Rigging Pl. 1.
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THE PRACTICE OF RIGGING.
RIGGING is, in part, prepared on shore, in a rigging-house, which has the following conveniences, &c. viz. At the upper end is a windlass; and, at certain distances, down the middle are two rows of large strong posts, for stretching ropes, and laying on service. On each side of the house are births for the men to prepare small rigging in. The ropes for the several parts of rigging are, in circumference and in length, according to the Table of Dimensions, for ships of each rate, given in this work. There is much subordinate knowledge necessary before a person can either prepare rigging in the house, or fit it on board of the ship. This consists of knotting, splicing, making of hitches, mousing, serving, &c. the necessary instructions for which are accordingly here given. INSTRUCTIONS FOR KNOTTING, SPLICING, MAKING OF HITCHES, MOUSING, SERVING, &c.
BENDS. COMMON BEND. Pass the end of a rope through the bight of another rope, then round and underneath the standing part; but, to prevent its jambing, pass it round again under the standing part. The sheet of a sail has the end passed up through the clue, then round the clue, and underneath the standing part. The rope of a buoy is passed as a sheet, and has the end stopt. Bends of a cable-clinch are passed as a seizing. CARRICK BEND. Lay the end of a rope, or hawser, across its standing part; then take the end of another rope, or hawser, and lay it under the first standing part, at the cross, and over the end; then through the bight, under the standing part; then over its own standing part, and underneath the bight again: it is often used in half, to form a greater length, to warp or tow with. FISHERMAN’S BEND. Take a round turn with the end of a rope, or hawser, through the ring of an anchor, &c. and a half hitch through both parts, and another half hitch round the standing part; then stop the end. HAWSER BEND is a hitch, with a throat and end seizing made on one end, and the end of another hawser reeved through the bight, and hitched with a throat and end seizing. TEMPORARY BEND, commonly made to reeve through large blocks, thus: Lay three fathoms of the end of two hawsers together, and put on a round seizing in the middle; then reverse the ends to each standing part, and put on a throat seizing between each end and the middle, and a round seizing on each end. CATSPAW, for hooking up shrouds, &c. Lay the end of a rope, or fall, over the standing part and middle of the bight, then turn it three times over both parts, and hook the tackle through both bights. CLINCHES. INSIDE CLINCH. The end of a cable is passed through the hawse hole, and reeved through the ring of the anchor; then passed round the standing part, through the bight, and a circle, which is called the clinch, formed the same size as the ring of the anchor: a throat and end-bend is then clapped on opposite each other, and a seizing of spun-yarn close to the end. All other |
inside clinches are stopped, similar to the bends of this clinch, with small rope, or spun-yarn. OUTSIDE CLINCH only differs from an inside clinch, by passing the end on the outside, and not through the bight, for the more readily casting it off.CROWNING, OR FINISHING A WALL-KNOT. Lay the first strand over the walling, and the second strand across over the first, and the third strand across over the second, and through the bight of the first; then haul the ends tight.FLEMISH EYE, OR MADE EYE. Open the end of a rope; then open the yarns, dividing them into two parts, and laying one part over the other; or place them together, one part in the other: then well marl, parcel, and serve them together. FOXES are two or three rope-yarns of junk, twisted together on the thigh till quite hard; then well rubbed with a hand-full of rope yarn. Make several bights over your thumbs to twist them together. FRAPPING is taking several turns with the end of a lashing round the middle of it, or any number of ropes, and drawing the several parts tight together. GASKETS are made with three-yarn foxes. Those for large ships consist of nine foxes, and those for smaller of seven. Place four foxes together, but lay them of unequal lengths; mark the middle of the whole length, and plait four foxes together, for eight or nine inches; then double it and plait the eight parts together for five inches, and work in the odd fox. The whole is then plaited together for eighteen inches in length; then leave out one fox, and so keep lessening, one fox at a time, till you come to five. If the foxes work out too fast, others must supply their places, till the whole length is worked, which is from five to seven fathoms long. To secure the ends, make a bight, by turning upwards one of the foxes, and plait the others through the bight, then haul tight upon that laid up. HITCHES. CLOVE-HITCH is two half-hitches, one at the back of the other, made by the ratlings round the shrouds, and by buoy ropes round anchors. BLACKWALL-HITCH. Take the end of a rope, or fall of a tackle, round the back of a tackle-hook, and jamb it underneath the standing part. HALF-HITCH. Pass the end of a rope over the standing part, and through the bight, and lay it up to the standing part; and repeat it for two half hitches. MAGNUS-HITCH Take two round turns through the ring of an anchor, &c. and bring the end over the standing part, then round the ring and through the bight. MIDSHIPMAN’S-HITCH. Take a half hitch round the standing part, and a round turn above the hitch, which jambs tight. It is mostly tied to make fast the sheets of sailing boats. RACKING-HITCH, for shortening slings. Lay the bight over both parts, and turn it over several times; then hook the tackle through the bights. ROLLING-HITCH. Take two round turns round a mast, &c. and make two half hitches on the standing part. TIMBER-HITCH. Lay the end over the hauling part, and pass it through the bight; then take several turns round the standing part, and stop the end. The bight serves as a sling for bales, drawing of timber, &c. KNITTLES are two or three rope-yarns twisted hard together between the finger and thumb, with the twist of the yarn beginning in the middle; the ends are whipped. KNOTS. BOWLINE-KNOT. Hold the end of the rope in the right hand, and the standing part in the left; then pass the end under the standing part in the left hand, and over through the bight; then bring it over the standing part, and pass it again through the bight, and haul tight. RUNNING-BOWLINE-KNOT has the knot made on the bight, instead of the standing part, round which it makes a bight. BUOY-ROPE-KNOT. One end is unstranded for one yard in length, stopped with rope yarn, and one of the nine smaller strands taken out of each of the three larger strands, which are then laid |
together again. The three smaller strands are double walled, right handed close to the stop, and then laid up their cuntlines. DIAMOND-KNOT, single. The strands of the rope are untwisted to where the knot is designed to be made; then form bights, by laying the strands down the sides of the rope, and keep them fast: then pass the end of the first strand through the second bight, missing the first; and the end of the second strand through the third bight, round the second; and the end of the third strand round the second and third bight; then pass the end through the first bight, and haul tight. The strands are then twisted together to the next knot. DIAMOND-KNOT, double, is made by the several strands following their respective places through the bights of the single knot; and led up through the middle, and the strands twisted together to the place of the next knot. These knots are used as ornaments upon bell and side ropes. OVERHAND-KNOT is made by passing the end over the left hand, and through the bight. REEF-KNOT is to attach the two ends of a rope together; and, in making, observe to pass both parts of the rope on one side, in the bight of the other, thus; turn up one end, and form a bight, and put the other end up through the bight; take it round underneath, and pass it through the bight again. SHROUD-KNOT. The two ends are opened about four feet, and interplaced one in the other, as for splicing: then a single wall knot is made with the ends on each part, and the ends laid in the cuntline, tapered, and served over with spunyarn. SPRITSAIL-SHEET-KNOT. The ends of the rope are first thrust through holes, one on each side of the spritsail-sheet block; then untwisted about two feet, and the six strands walled together, and crowned at top, thus: lay four strands over the walling, two to the right, and two to the left; the remaining two strands are woven contrarywise over and under the other strands, and hauled tight. The block is then seized in the bight. STOPPER-KNOT is made the same way as a double wall knot, and the ends put up through the heart, and whipt at top. TACK-KNOT is made by untwisting the strands sufficiently, and there making a stop with rope-yarn; then single wall and crown, then double wall and double crown, and haul the ends tight, and jamb the knot: then the strands are led down through the walling, and laid down in the cuntline; tapered, marled, and served over with spun-yarn. WALL-KNOT, single, is made by untwisting the ends of a rope, and making a bight with the first strand; then passing the second over the end of the first, and the third strand over the end of the second, and through the bight of the first, and haul the ends tight. WALL-KNOT, double, is made by passing the ends, singly, close underneath the first wall, and thrusting them upwards through the middle, only the last end comes up under two bights.LASHING. LASHING OF BLOCKS. Take a number of turns, parallel to each other, through the eye of the block-strap, and round any object, as a mast, yard, &c. and, to strengthen the lashing, take several cross turns with the end, and make fast.MARLING is winding any line round a rope, and securing every turn by a hitch, so that they may be independent of each other, and remain fixed, should either be cut through by friction. It is principally used to fix on the clues of sails, and top-brims of topsails. Splices are marled down for serving with rope-yarn or twine. PARCELLING, long narrow strips of worn canvas, laid smooth round a rope in spiral turns, and well tarred. It is previously done when a rope is to be served, or a mouse formed upon stays. PLAITING, braided cordage, made by rope-yarns, &c. twisted together, and then laid one over the other alternately; or the end of a rope opened, and the strands placed together in the same manner. POINTING is tapering the end of a rope, or splice, and working, over the reduced part, a small close netting, with an even number of knittles twisted from the same, to prevent the end untwisting, |
and to make it go more easily through a block, or hole. Half the knittles are first laid down, leaving out every other one, then three turns of the warp is taken round them; then take up those knittles, and lay down the other half, and take three turns of the warp round them, and so on, alternately, until the length be once and a half the circumference of the rope. The end and upper part of the knittles are then round-seized, and snaked with twine, &c.POINTS, short pieces of braided cordage, plaited together as gaskets are; beginning in the middle with nine foxes, and tapering to five at the ends, and from one fathom and a half to one fathom in length. They are used to reef the courses and topsails.ROPEBANDS differ from gaskets only in their length, being from seven to nine feet long. SEIZING is joining together two ropes, or different parts of one, with small rope, line, or spunyarn, by taking several close turns round them, from six to ten, according to the size of the rope: they are strained tight. The lower turns have always one more than the riding or upper turns; two turns are taken across the seizing, between the two ropes seized; the end is taken under the last turn; hove tight; and knotted, close to the jambing turn, if large, with a wall knot crowned, and if small, with an over-hand knot, and cut off. Seizings to the double straps of blocks are crossed each way with two turns. A SELVAGEE is several rope-yarns placed together, and marled together with spun-yarn, in the form of slings. It is used to attach the hook of a tackle to any rope, shroud, or stay, to extend them, by taking two or more turns round the same, and hooking in the bights. SENNIT is braided cordage, made by plaiting from five to thirteen rope-yarns together, one over the other, according to the size and length, always keeping an odd yarn. SERVING is encircling a rope with line or spun-yarn, &c. to keep it from rubbing and chafing. The end of the spun-yarn, for service, is placed under the two or three first turns, to keep it fast; then two turns are taken round the rope and mallet, on each side of and round the handle. The mallet is then gradually turned round the rope by its handle, while another person passes the ball of spunyarn; and this is continued until the rope is covered the length required. When the mallet is within a few turns of the end, take the turns off the mallet, and pass them by hand, and heave the end well through, where it is made fast, as at first. SHEEP-SHANK is made to shorten backstays, &c. by bending part of the backstay, &c. three parts, and taking a half hitch over the bights. SNAKING. A sort of fastening to confine the outer turns of seizings, &c. with the same size rope, line, spun-yarn, &c. by passing it across, and under the outer turns, at angles. SPLICING. THE CUNT-SPLICE, forms an eye in the middle-of a rope, &c. as the eye-splice doth at the end, by interweaving the ends into the strands of the rope, &c. at certain distances from each other, so that the rope becomes double, in the extent of the splice. This splice is used for pendents, or any thing that goes over the mast-head with a splice; also for lead-lines, log-lines, and fishing-lines, where the short splice would be liable to separate. EYE-SPLICE forms an eye, or circle, at the end of a rope, on itself, or round a block, &c. The strands are untwisted, and their ends pushed through intervals made in the strands, by a fid or marline-spike, at that distance on the rope which the eye may require; observing to put the middle end through first, then pass it over the surface of the second strand, and push it through the third; repeat the same with the two other ends, laying them fair asunder. The ends of this splice are tapered, by gradually reducing the yarns, then placed smooth along the rope; then marled, and served with spun-yarn, round all blocks in the royal navy. LONG SPLICE is made to rejoin a rope or ropes, intended to reeve in a block, without |
encreasing its size. The ends are opened from one half to a whole fathom in length, and placed close together regularly one in the other; one strand is then unlaid, and the opposite strand laid up its intervals each way, and the two strands knotted together at the ends and middle of the splice; the ends are then halved, and pushed under the next strand. SHORT SPLICE is made by untwisting the ends of two ropes, or the two ends of one rope, and placing the strands of one opposite to and between the strands of the other: draw them close together, and push the strands of one under the strands of the other, the same as the eye-splice. This splice is used for block-straps, slings, &c. and the ends are tapered and served. TAPERED SPLICE, mostly used on cables, is made by unlaying a certain length of each cable, then placing them together, and interplacing the strands, as in the short splice, twice each way, and hauled tight each time; then inlay the strands, or ends, successively, and reduce them, by cutting away one strand; then interplace the two remaining strands, and reduce them to a single strand, which is again thrust through, and cut off. The splice is then served over with spun-yarn, something more than the whole length. DRAWING SPLICE, used on cables, is made by unlaying about three fathoms of the ends; then place them together, and make a short splice: then leave about one fathom, and from thence reduce each strand to a long taper, by gradually cutting away as many yarns as necessary, and neatly point over the taper; then lay the ends up the cuntlines, and clap on a quarter seizing at each end of the splice, an end seizing at the beginning of the pointing, and a stop at the ends of the tails. This is the best splice for cables, as it may be readily taken asunder. Another good method of making a CABLE SPLICE, is to put the ends in twice each way; then to pick out the strands, worm part of them round the cable, and taper away the rest, which should be marled close down; then clap on a good throat and two end seizings of ratline.STOP is a temporary seizing, and performed similarly. When used to stop worming, it is snaked.WHIPPING, to prevent the unravelling of the end of a rope. Take several turns of spun-yarn, &c. round the end of the rope, and lay one end under the four first turns, and the other end under the four last turns, and haul tight. Another method is, to knot every turn on the contrary side of the rope, hauling it tight, and finishing the last turn with a reef-knot. WORMING. Wind a small rope in the cuntlines of the strands of cables, shrouds, or stays; and spun-yarn in those of ropes four inches in circumference and above. The first end of the worming is securely stopped; it then fills one interval, or cuntline; and, when arrived at the end of the length intended to be served, it is there stopped; then laid back into the second interval; and so on successively, stopping it at the ends. When worming is wanted to be cut without waste, observe this general rule. Once the length of the service, multiplied by the number of strands, or intervals, and one-third more added, gives the length of the worming. EXAMPLE. Twelve fathoms of service, in a four-strand-rope, will take 64 fathoms of rope for worming; and for a three-strand-rope, 48 fathoms. |
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RIGGING PREPARED IN THE HOUSE.
THE RIGGING FOR THE LOWER MASTS.
SHROUDS. The cablet is warped round two iron fids, fixed in the floor, as distant from each other as the first warp is long. The length, which is the distance from the top of the bolsters at the masthead to the foremost dead-eye, is specified in the Table of Dimensions. One end of the cablet is made fast to the lower fid, and passed round the upper fid; and so on, alternately, one turn close to the back of the other, and each hauled tight by hand. The additional length, gained by the turns lying round each other, is sufficient for the lengthening of each pair of shrouds, as they rake aft. When the whole gang of shrouds are warped out, the bights at the lower end are cut through, in a strait direction with the fids. The upper bights are designed for the eyes, and are marked round the middle, beginning at the inner one, with one piece of spun-yarn knotted, two for the second; and so on for the number required. The outer turn is called SWIFTERS; and they are left four or five feet at each end longer than the shrouds, and have an eye spliced in them the circumference of the mast-head. The shrouds, when cut to their length, are got up and stretched thus for worming: at the end of each length is made a bend; one end is passed through a pair of slings, fixed round a post, at the lower end of the house, and the other end through the strap of a treble block, and a fid thrust through each bend. The treble block is connected by its fall to a double block, lashed round a post, at the upper end, thus: The standing part of the fall is fastened to the becket, at the arse of the double block; then reeved through the first sheave of the treble block, then through the first sheave of the double block on the same side, and so on alternately, and the fall carried and attached to the windlass by three or four round turns. The windlass is put in motion by men, with levers, or handspecs, and each length thus stretched, hand-tight. The rope used for the fall is commonly five-inch white rope. All shrouds are wormed with double spun-yarn, one-fourth the length from the center to the eye, on each side; but the fore-leg of the foremost pair is wormed all the way to the end. Each length after being wormed, is hove out by the same purchase, till each pair has acquired, by stretching, once and a half the length of the eye; and should remain on that stretch twenty-four hours before the service is laid on. Shrouds are wormed before they are hove out to lengthen, because the worming of cable-laid ropes encreases, in tension, with the rope; and thereby draws smooth and even into the cuntline. |
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The eyes of all Shrouds are parcelled with worn canvas, well tarred; about one fathom and a half on each side of the middle, for large ships, and proportionably for smaller; and then served with spun-yarn one-fourth of their length: each turn of the serving is laid close, and strained tight round, to prevent the water penetrating. The fore-leg of the foremost pair of shrouds is served the whole length.Swifters, when stretched, have the length of the splice set off on each side of the middle; and likewise the length of the eye, or circumference of the mast-head. The latter is parcelled and served as above. They are then cut asunder in the middle, and spliced to the circumference of the mast-heads; then got on the stretch, and served over the splice one-fourth of the length.The bights of shrouds are seized together to the circumference of the mast-heads: the seizing of the first shroud is put on below the bolster, or trestle-trees, with seven under and six riding turns, and a double cross turn over all. The seizing of each shroud is to be laid its breadth below the next, and clear of each other, to prevent chafing. Brigs have four pair of shrouds forward; and the foremost shroud and pendent are in one. BOWSPRIT-SHROUDS are made of cable-laid rope. They have an iron hook and thimble spliced in the inner ends, and are served over the splice. STAYS have an eye in one end, sufficiently large to reeve itself through. Each stay is got upon the stretch, and hove well out with the windlass, as the shrouds are; then wormed with spun-yarn one-third of its length; and is hove out a second time, till the middle strand, or heart, is made to break in several places. The mouse, made with spun-yarn, in the shape of a pear, is then raised on the stay, at one-third of its length. By some, but, by others, two sides of the mast-head, added to twice the length of the trestle-trees, gives the length from the eye to the mouse. The ground of the mouse, or the length from the shoulder, or upper part, to the beginning of the tail, is one-third the circumference of the stay; or else is laid with as many turns in length as the shoulder is raised above the stay, which should be in circumference three times that of the stay, and from that to diminish to the shape in the plate, by gradually leaning the turns in the spun-yarn: every turn of the spun-yarn to be hove well tight with a large serving mallet, and beat close. Between the turns of the spun-yarn are laid several rope-yarns, lengthways, and their ends brought back over the next turn from the shoulder, which prevents their slipping. When all the turns are laid, it is parcelled over with worn canvas, well tarred, pegged on, and pointed over with inch or three-quarter rope; each knittle to be in length five times the circumference of the stay, to have an even number, and hove tight when passed. The shoulder of the mouse must be covered with knittles, and their number diminished as they are worked into the smaller parts. The ends of the knittles are stopped with spun-yarn, at the front, with a secure seizing. The warp to be marline, and the pointing continued the circumference of the stay for the length of the tail. The collar, the eye, and one fathom below the mouse, are parcelled with worn canvas, well tarred, and served over with spun-yarn. BOBSTAYS are wormed, parcelled, and served with spun-yarn three-fourths of the length. COLLARS. FORE-STAY-COLLARS are fitted to the circumference of the bowsprit, and spliced together at the ends; wormed, parcelled, and served the whole length; then doubled, and a heart seized in the bight. The splice is to lie on the back of the heart with quarter seizings, a score being cut on each side of the heart, large enough to admit from nine to twelve turns of seizing; the seizing is to be snaked on the back, to lie closely. |
MAIN-STAY-COLLAR is made by the rope-makers, with an eye in one end; is wormed, parecelled, and served round the eye, and the whole length.PREVENTER-STAY-COLLARS are fitted to the circumference of the bowsprit, with an eye spliced in each end for lashing; then wormed, parcelled, and served with spun-yarn from eye to eye; and a heart seized in the bight, as in the fore-stay-collar.BOWSPRIT-SHROUD-COLLAR and BOB-STAY-COLLARS are fitted to the circumference of the bowsprit: They have an eye spliced in each end; are then wormed, parcelled, and served from eye to eye; and a heart seized in the bight, with a long and short leg, with seven under and six riding turns, well strained, and crossed with two turns: the end whipt, and secured with a wall-knot crowned. CATHARPIN-LEGS are four in number. The foremost is the shortest, and they increase one inch in length as they go aft. The length of the foremost one is from four feet in small, to eight feet in large, ships. They have an eye spliced in each end for lashing; are then wormed, parcelled, and served with spun-yarn from eye to eye. HORSES for the yards have an eye spliced in one end, the circumference of the yard-arm, and served with spun-yarn over the splice. JIB-HORSES are doubled, and served with spun-yarn one fathom in length in the bight, and knotted with a over-hand knot, at the distance of every yard. PENDENTS OF TACKLES are wormed, parcelled, and served with spun-yarn, in the way of the cuntsplice. They are then spliced in the middle, to the circumference of the mast-head; have large thimbles spliced into the lower ends; are then wormed, parcelled, and served with spun-yarn the whole length. Large ships having two pair of pendents to the main and fore masts, the after pendents are one foot longer than the foremost ones. YARD-TACKLE-PENDENTS have an eye spliced in one end to the size of the yard-arm, and a double block in the other end. The splices are served over with spun-yarn. BRACE-PENDENTS have an eye spliced in one end to the size of the yard-arm, and a single block in the other end. The splices are served over with spun-yarn. PREVENTER-BRACE-PENDENTS are spliced through the strap of the brace-pendent-block; served with spun-yarn over the splice; and are left the length of the service of the splice and length of the eye longer than the brace-pendent, with an eye spliced in the other end to the circumference of the yard-arm. TRUSS-PENDENTS are doubled, and cut in the bight: they have an iron thimble spliced into one end, and are served with spun-yarn one-third of the length. MAIN-STAY-TACKLE-PENDENTS have an eye spliced in one end, and a double block in the other, and served with spun-yarn over the splices. QUARTER-TACKLE-PENDENT is spliced into the strap of the double block; served with spun-yarn over the splice, and the other end whipt. MIZEN AND TOPMAST BURTON-PENDENTS have a cuntsplice in the middle to the circumference of the mast-head; thimbles spliced in the lower ends; and served with spun-yarn over the splices. GUY-PENDENTS are doubled, and served with spun-yarn in the bight, one fathom in length. VANG-PENDENTS are doubled, and served with spun-yarn two fathoms long in the bight, and a double block spliced into each end, and served with spun-yarn over the splices. |
RUNNERS OF TACKLES have a double block spliced in one end, and served with spun-yarn over the splice, and the other end whipt.SLINGS AND STRAPS. The strap has an eye spliced in each end, with a long and short leg, to the circumference of the yard, and served with spun-yarn from eye to eye, with a thimble seized in the bight.Slings have an eye spliced in one end; then wormed, parcelled, and served almost the whole length. The spritsail slings are wormed, and served with spun-yarn. SPANS about the mast have a single block spliced in one end, and served with spun-yarn the whole length, except-what is left at the other end to splice in another block on-board. LONG AND SHORT SPANS have a single block spliced in each end, and the splices served over with spun-yarn. One end is finished in the house, the other in the top, after they are hitched round the cap. STANDING-LIFTS have an eye spliced in one end, and are served with spun-yarn over the splice. BECKETS are whipt at each end. TYES are wormed, parcelled, and served with spun-yarn for three-fourths of their length. TACKS, MAIN AND FORE, are cable laid, and are tapered in the making. The biggest end is opened out long enough to heave the knot close together: the knot is double-walled and crowned; the ends are thrust through the walling, then scraped down, served over with spun-yarn, and wormed, parcelled, and served with spun-yarn one-fourth of the whole length. THE RIGGING TO THE TOPMASTS.
SHROUDS are warped out on the floor, as the lower shrouds are, and fitted to the circumference of the topmast-head. In the foremost shrouds, on each side, is seized a sister block, below the futtock-staff. STANDING-BACKSTAYS are wormed, and served with spun-yarn, in the way of the top-brim. They are fitted as the shrouds are, except that the third pair is tongued together the circumference of the topmast-head: the tongue is a short piece of rope of the same circumference as the stay, and is spliced into the strands of the stay; the ends of the tongue are tapered, marled down, and served over with spun-yarn. BREAST-BACKSTAY-RUNNERS are doubled, and cut in the bight. They have a double block spliced in one end; are served with spun-yarn over the splice; and the other end is whipped. STAY is fitted as the lower stay is. The collar is in proportion to the topmast-head. PREVENTER-STAY, the same as the stay. COLLARS have an eye spliced in one end, are wormed and served with spun-yarn, and have a single block seized in the bight. The FORE-TOPMAST-STAY-COLLAR is seldom used; but it is prepared in case the bees of the bowsprit should be carried away. Ships, however, that have no bees to the bowsprit, make use of this collar. FUTTOCK-SHROUDS. The length given in the Table of Dimensions is divided into four, and cut in the bights. Each length has a hook and thimble spliced into each end, and the ends of the splices stopped with spun-yarn; then doubled, and a spun-yarn tied in the middle for the cutting mark. The hooks are then hooked in each other, and got upon the stretch. They should be well |
hove out, to try the hooks and splices, as the topmast depends very much thereon. If a hook should break, or the splices draw, the former must be shifted, and the latter hauled tighter through.After they are sufficiently stretched, the ends of the splices are tapered, marled down, and served with spunyarn within two feet of the cutting mark: they are cut asunder, and the ends whipt.FUTTUCK-STAVES are wormed, parcelled, and served with spunyarn the whole length; and then cut to the lengths wanted on-board. TOP-ROPE-PENDENTS have a large iron thimble spliced in the lower end; are marled over the splice in the rigging house, and pointed when got on-board. REEF-TACKLE-PENDENTS have a double block spliced in the end, and are served with spunyarn over the splice. TYE has a double block spliced in the lower end, and is served with spunyarn over the splice. PARRAL-ROPES have an eye spliced in each end; are wormed, and served with spunyarn from eye to eye: they are then doubled, and cut asunder in the bight. The end of one is thrust through the upper hole in the ribs; and through the hole in the middle of the trucks, and so alternately. The other end is brought the reverse way through the lower hole in the ribs and trucks. THE RIGGING FOR THE TOPGALLANT MASTS.
SHROUDS are fitted as the topmast-shrouds are, except that, instead of a sister-block, a thimble is seized in the two foremost pair on each side, close up to the hounds. STANDING-BACKSTAYS are fitted as the shrouds are; wormed, and served in the way of the top-brim. STAY is cable-laid in large ships, and hawser-laid in small ones. The latter has an eye spliced in the upper end to the circumference of its mast-head, and served with spunyarn over the splice. The cable-laid is fitted with a collar, and moused, as any other stay. STRAPPING OF BLOCKS.
The whole length of all the different sizes of block-strapping is got upon the stretch, and hove out tight for worming and serving; it is then wormed and served, and cut into shorter lengths, to suit the different blocks. The strapping of jeer-blocks is wormed, parcelled, and served. Strapping of four inches diameter, and above, is wormed and served: and all under four inches is only served with spunyarn; except the spritsail-brace, buntline, and leechline blocks, that are lashed under the tops, which are only served with spunyarn over the splice, and the tail left half a fathom in length. Jeer-blocks are double scored; and the double and treble blocks are strapped with a double strap, thus: it is spliced together at the ends, and, when doubled, to be the size of the block and circumference of the yard. It is then doubled, and the block seized in the bight, with a long and short leg; the splice lying in the arse of the block. The scores of all blocks are to be well tarred, and the pin and sheave examined, before the strap is put on. The block is set well into the strap with wedges, thus: the four parts are frapped together with rope-yarn under the block, with a chock between, and the wedges are set between the breast of the block and chock. Then the strap is nippered, with a heaver, round the block; the wedges, chock, and frapping, taken away, and the block hung upon the stake-head, or post, and the strap well seized together, close under the block, with nine under and eight riding turns, every turn strained tight round by a heaver, and crossed each way with two turns. |
Jeer-blocks, for the mastheads, are strapped with long eyes, to receive many turns of the lashing; and the block is seized into the strap, as before; as are all seizing blocks, in proportion to their sizes. The straps are cut agreeable to the following Table.
Blocks, strapped with eyes or thimbles spliced in the ends, are seized tight into the bight, and the legs left long enough to lash through the eyes, round a mast, yard, &c. as the topsail clue-lines, clue-garnets, and spritsail clue-lines, &c. Blocks strapped with a thimble, or hook and thimble, have the strap spliced together at the ends. The block is fixed in one bight, for the splice to lay on the arse of the block, and the thimble in the other bight; the seizing is put on, between the block and thimble, with eight under and six riding turns, according to the size of the block, each turn strained tight by a heaver; the turns double crossed, and the end stopt with a wall-knot crowned. Blocks strapped with double tails, are fixed in the strap, similar to blocks with eye-straps; and those with a single tail are spliced in, and served with spunyarn over the splice. Girtline-blocks are strapped in the house, and the girtlines reeved. In the Table of Dimensions for standing and running rigging will be found dimensions of all blocks for their respective uses and situations. NECESSARY ROPES FITTED IN THE RIGGING-HOUSE.
WINDING-TACKLE-PENDENT has an eye spliced in one of the ends; the ends put in three times, and cut off short; the other end is whipt. FISH-TACKLE-PENDENT has a large iron hook, with a thimble spliced in one end; and the ends of the splice tapered, marled down, and served over with spunyarn. BILL-PENDENT has a hook and thimble spliced in one end, and served with spunyarn over the splice. RUDDER-PENDENTS are doubled and cut in the bight; they have a hook and thimble spliced in one end, and are served with spunyarn over the splice. DAVIT-GUYS have an eye spliced in one end to the circumference of the davit-head; are served with spunyarn over the splice; and whipt with spunyarn at the other end. STOPPERS, DECK and BITT, are divided into ten short and two long stoppers. The two long stoppers, from a first rate ship to a sloop, are cut sixteen feet; and, when knotted, to be twelve feet six inches. The short stoppers are each cut twelve feet six inches; to be, when knotted, eight feet three inches long. One end of each stopper has a double wall-knot, and the ends led up through the middle, and whipt with spunyarn: the other end is only whipt with spunyarn. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
BUOY ROPES. One end is unstranded for one yard in length, stopped with rope-yarn, and one of the nine smaller strands taken out of each of the three larger strands, which are then laid together again. The three smaller strands are double-walled right-handed close to the stop, then laid up their cuntlines, and three fathoms next the knot wormed, parcelled, and served with spunyarn.When two or more buoy ropes are knotted at the same time, after the knot is formed on each, the ends are spliced together, and the other ends made fast to tackles, and hove tight, which strains the knots close and firm. If a single buoy rope be knotted after the knot is made, make a bend at one end, and attach a tackle to it, and make fast the other end; then bowse upon the tackle, and close the knot as before.
BUOY-SLINGS are cut to the first length in the table; and have n eye spliced in each end, large enough to reeve the same sized rope: they are then got on the stretch, and hove out to the next length; then wormed, and served with spunyarn from eye to eye. BUOY-HOOPS are cut sixteen inches longer than the length in the table, to allow for splicing the ends together. In the merchant service they are wormed and served; but not in the king’s service. Each hoop is fixed its breadth within the second iron hoop, at each end, and is reeved through the eye in the end of the slings, before the ends are spliced together. Each sling is doubled, and two slings are fixed at each end of the buoy. The eyes of the slings, at one end, lead down through the upper hoop, and reeve on the lower hoop; and the eyes of the slings, at the other end, lead up under the lower hoop, and reeve on the upper hoop, between the upper slings. The hoops are drawn asunder, sufficiently to force the buoy between them; are then put over the ends of the buoy, and the slings and hoops got into their places, as near as possible. The slings are placed on the quarters, equally between each other; and the bights fixed in scores, in the ends of the buoy. It is next got upon the stretch: one end of the slings is made fast to a post, and the other end to a tackle, whose fall is swayed tight, or hove so by a heaver. When the buoy is thus set tight, the hoops are driven by a mallet into their places; and the bight of the slings is seized well together, with a thimble in one end, and an eye at the other. Large buoys have seven under and six riding turns smaller buoys six under; and five riding turns; the end of the seizing crossed each way, and the end knotted and crowned. A fid is driven in the eye, to make it round, then driven out, and the two bights marled together. Another thimble is turned into the thimble in the other end, for bending the buoy rope to. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
GUN AND NUT SLINGS are spliced together with a short splice, and served with spunyarn over the splice.BUTT AND HOGSHEAD SLINGS. Each pair has a thimble spliced in one end, which is served with spun-yarn over the splice; the other end is whipt.CAN-HOOK SLINGS. A flat broad iron hook, with an eye in one end; is spliced through the eye in each end of the slings, and sometimes with a thimble seized in the bight. PUDDENING OF ANCHORS. Worn hawser-laid rope is cut into lengths three times the diameter of the ring; and as many of these lengths as will cover the ring, which is about thirteen. The ring is first chocked upright, by wedging it in the hole of the shank; then well tarred, and parcelled with worn canvas, twice round, and marled down close with spun-yarn. The turns of the puddening are then passed, one turn and a half each way from the middle of the ring; then hove tight by a heaver, and well seized with two quarter and two end seizings, that are snaked all round. The ends remaining, are opened out, and payed all over with a good coat of tar. WOOLDINGS, round masts or bow sprits, are performed by a machine, called a horse, made with two cheeks of oak plank, and a small windlass in the middle: one end of the cheeks rest upon the ground, the other against the mast or bow sprit, being hollowed to fit their convexity. The number of turns of each woolding is from thirteen to fifteen. The first turn is whipt at the end with spun-yarn, and nailed, to the mast or bowsprit, with three nails, and a leather button under the head of each nail. The turns are passed close together singly, and every turn hove tight, by the windlass being made fast to the middle, with a hitch round an iron pin, and then hove with two levers or handspecs, one at each end. Every turn, when hove tight, is fastened with a nail and leather button, each nail being regularly below the other to the middle turn, and then above, The number of wooldings on a main mast are from ten to twelve, according to its length, or one woolding between every hoop. The foremast has one woolding less than the main-mast. Mizenmasts and bowsprits have one woolding under the hounds, and near the outer end of the Bowsprit. |
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PROGRESSIVE METHOD OF RIGGING SHIPS. |
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PROGRESSIVE METHOD OF RIGGING SHIPS.
THERE is no one undeviating mode which is pursued in the progressive rigging of ships. It is an operation which must at all times depend upon the time allotted for its performance, and the necessity of immediate sitting. The nature of it, however, is such, that all parts may be advancing at the same time: but the usual method of proceeding, where extreme expedition is not required, is the following: First, rig the bowsprit; then get the lower rigging over the masts. Next, get up the topmast and their shrouds: then get on board and rig the lower yards; then the topsail-yards; and, lastly, get up the topgallant-masts, with their rigging and yards. The performance of each part is now here treated of, the Bowsprit and lower masts being fixed. BOWSPRIT.
HORSES. The outer ends are spliced round a thimble closed through an eye-bolt on each side of the upper part of the bowsprit-cap. The inner-ends have a thimble seized in, that sets up to the eye-bolt in the timber-head, on each side the stem, by a laniard, passed several times alternately through the thimble and eyebolt, and set tight by hand: the turns are then frapped together, and the end hitched. GAMMONING. Nine or eleven turns of the rope are passed over the bowsprit and through a hole cut in the knee of the head alternately; (but, where there is no knee, through a large triangular ring-bolt driven through the stem.) The first end is whipt and passed through the hole, and over the bowsprit, with a round turn, then clinched round the bowsprit close against the cleats; the other end passes through the fore-part of the hole, taking care to cross every turn, and keep each turn forward on the bowsprit, and aft in the hole, and every turn is hove tight and nipper’d. In the navy, the bowsprit is first heaved down by a chain-boat. A selvage is fastened round the bowsprit next the saddle, for the spritsail-slings, to which a block is hooked, and through it a pendent is reeved, having one end made fast to an eye-bolt in one side the boat, and a lulff-tackle to the other end, whose fall is connected with the windlass, and heaved tight by handspecs; the fall is then stopped with spunyarn, and taken off the windlass. Each turn of the gammoning-rope is then heaved tight as above. A leading-block is lashed through an eye-bolt, in the bow of the chain-boat, or round the davit, and a pendent reeved through, with an eye spliced in one end, through which a bight of the gammoning-rope is passed, and retained by means of a toggle. To the other end of the pendent is hooked a luff-tackle, whose fall is connected with the windlass, and heaved tight as before. The luff-tackle is over-hauled by a small jigger-tackle, made fast to the davit-head and strap of the luff-tackle block. In merchant-ships, chain-boats are seldom used. Their own long-boats or casks of water are heaved up to the bowsprit end, and every turn of the gammonning-rope is connected with the windlass or |
capstern, on-board. A leading block is made fast through the holes, for the bob-stay, with tails, long enough for the pendent and tackle, to lead straight through the hawser-holes to the windlass. The process as before.When all the turns are passed, and hove tight, they are frapped together in the middle, by as many cross turns as are passed over the bowsprit, each turn hove tight: the end of the gammoning rope is then whipt, and seized to one of the turns. The frapping increases the tension; and adds to the security acquired by the purchase.THE BOBSTAY-COLLAR is lashed upon the upper side, two-thirds out, or within the saddle for the spritsail slings, with eight or ten turns, each turn passing alternately, through the eyes, and hove tight by a heaver.THE SHROUD-COLLARS are lashed upon each side the bowsprit, as before. FORE-PREVENTER-STAY-COLLAR, AND FORE-STAY-COLLAR. The latter stops against cleats, nailed to the bowsprit, to prevent its coming in, and both are lashed under the bowsprit. A stage is made for this purpose, of two long spars, or the topmast studding-sail-booms, and a grating. One end of the spars rests upon the gunwale, on each side the bowsprit, and the outer ends are lashed to the bowsprit, and the grating is laid under the collars. BOB-STAYS. Kings ships have two pair of bob-stays, merchant ships commonly but one pair. They are used to confine the bowsprit downwards, and are fixed by passing one end through a hole bored in the knee of the head; (merchant ships, that have no knee, have large triangular bolts driven through the stem, and clenched on a plate of iron, inside;) the ends are then spliced together, to make it twofold, or like the link of a chain. A heart, or dead-eye, is seized in the bight, with a splice at the arse of the heart, the same as the collar; a laniard then passes through, and connects with the heart, or dead-eye, in the collar under the bowsprit, and sets up tight, with a luff-tackle upon luff, and leads in upon the forecastle. The use of the bobstay, is to draw down, and keep steady the bowsprit, to counteract the force of the stays of the fore-mast, which draw it upwards. SHROUDS hook to an eye-bolt on each side the bow; the fore-mast end has an heart, or deadeye, seized in, that it may shift nearer in, as the rope stretches; the shrouds are then set tight as the bob-stay. The shrouds are to fortify the bowsprit, as the fore-mast and upper part of the main-mast are stayed and supported be the bowsprit. JIB-BOOM.
THE TRAVELLER, or round iron hoop, is first put over the outer end of the jib-boom, with a hook and shackle; the hook is kept inwards to hook the tack of the jib to. HORSES. The bight is taken over the outer end of the jib-boom with a jambing-knot, and rests against a shoulder, made in the end of the jib-boom, to prevent its coming in. The inner ends are brought in and made fast, with a round turn round the jib-boom, within the cap. The ends are stopt back, with two or three seizings of spun-yarn, to prevent their being cast off by mistake. GUY-PENDENTS are put over the jib-boom, the same as the horses, and the inner ends reeve through a thimble, on the quarters of the spritsail-yard, and turn into the strap of a double block, with a throat and round seizings, which is connected, by its fall, to a single block, that hooks to an eye-bolt, near the cat-head, and leads in upon the fore-castle. A STRAP is put over the end of the jib-boom, with three thimbles seized in it; the middle thimble is the largest, which the fore-topgallant-stay reeves through, and the thimble on each side has the fore-top-gallant bowlines reeved through. |
SPRITSAIL-YARD.
HORSES. The eye in the outer end is put over the yard-arm on each side, and stops against the cleats; the other end has an eye spliced in and seized to the yard three feet beyond the slings. The horses hang three feet below the yard. To keep horses more parallel to the yard, they are suspended at proper distances by ropes, called STIRRUPS, two or three on each side the slings, having a thimble or eye spliced in their lower ends. They hang three feet below the yard, through which the horse reeves. The upper ends are opened and plaited, to lie flat to the yard: they have three turns round the yard, and are nailed. A flemish horse is used at each arm of the yard, having an eye spliced in each; one eye is put over the bolt in the yard-arm, the other seized within the cleats. BRACES AND PENDENTS. The eyes of the pendents are spliced in one end. They go over the yard-arm, and the brace reeves through the single block spliced in the other end, connecting them with a double block, made fast under the fore-top, and then leads through another, made fast at the aft part of the top, and down to the breast-work at the aft part of the fore-castle, and the standing part is made fast to the stay-collar. LIFTS. The blocks are strapped with an eye to the size of the yard-arm, and put neatly over the yard-arm: A SPAN is then passed round the cap under the jib-boom, with a hitch, and has a single block turned into each end. After which one end of the lifts reeve through the single block in the span at the cap, then through the lift-block on the yard-arm. The standing part is made fast to an eye-bolt in the cap, and leads in upon the fore-castle; they are used for the spritsail-topsail-sheets, and to keep the yard level, or to raise one yard-arm higher than the other, and support the weight when a number of seamen are employed to furl or reef the sail. THE STANDING-LIFT has an eye spliced in one end, and lashes to the yard one-fourth from the slings; the other end has a thimble spliced in, and is set up with a laniard to a thimble spliced in a strap that goes round the bowsprit within the bees. CLUE-LINE-BLOCKS are strapped, with two eyes, and are lashed through those eyes round the yard, three feet without the slings; the lashing to be upon the yard. SLINGS. One end has an eye, and goes round the yard close within the cleats in the middle, and seizes with a quarter seizing close to the yard; the other end goes over the bowsprit before the saddle, and under the yard, then over the bowsprit again, and an eye is spliced in the end, that comes close to the other eye, and lashes. STRAP, with a thimble seized in its bight, is spliced or seized round the yard in the middle, between the cleats. The single block of the haliards hooks in the thimble, and is moused with spunyarn, round the hook, to prevent its slipping. The long tackle block is hooked, and moused, to an eye-bolt in the after-part of the bottom of the cap, and the fall leads in upon the forecastle, and belays to the rack over the bowsprit. Also, on each outer quarter of the yard, is seized a strap, with a thimble, through which are led the jib-guys, PREVENTER-SLINGS are used when the haliards are taken in. The outer end has a hook and thimble spliced in and served down, that hooks to the eye-bolt in the bottom of the cap. The inner end reeves through the thimble in the above strap, and is hitched with two half hitches, or spliced. |
SPRITSAIL-TOPSAIL-YARD.
HORSES. The eye in the outer ends is put over the yard-arm on each side, and stops against the cleats; the other end has an eye spliced in it, and is seized to the yard, three feet without the slings. BRACES have an eye spliced in one end, that goes over the yard-arm on each side; the other end leads through a block made fast to the underside of the fore top, from that through another block, made fast under the aftside of the top, and down to the aft-part of the forecastle, and is there belayed. LIFTS have an eye spliced in one end that goes next over the yard-arm; the other end leads through a thimble, seized on each side a strap that goes over the jib-boom end, and leads in upon the forecastle, through a saddle on the bowsprit for leading in the running-ropes, and belays to the rack over the bowsprit. CLUE-LINE-BLOCKS are strapped with two eyes, and are lashed through those eyes round the yard, about two feet without the slings. PARRAL-ROPE. Both ends pass under the yard, and over the jib-boom, contrary-wise; they are then seized through the eyes, close in the cavity on the back of the ribs. HALIARD. One end reeves through a block, lashed under the outer part of the jib-boom; then through a single block, lashed round the middle of the yard between the cleats; then forward; and is made fast with a bend, through the becket of the block, at the jib-boom ends. The leading-part leads in upon the forecastle, and belays to the rack over the bowsprit. FORE-MAST, AND MAIN AND MIZEN MASTS.
GIRTLINE-BLOCKS are lashed round the mast-head, above the stop of the cap, one to hang on each side. The girtlines that reeve through them lead down upon deck, for hoisting the rigging tops, and cross-trees, and the persons employed to place the rigging over the mast-head. BOLSTERS, on the trestle-trees, are clothed with old canvas, several times doubled, and tarred. PENDENTS OF TACKLES are got over the mast-head, and fixed, that the thimbles, to which is lashed the block for the runner, may hang one on each side the mast, and buttons over the mizen-mast. SHROUDS are hoisted over the mast-head. The first pair leads down on the starboard-side forward, the next pair forward on the larboard-side; then the second pair on the starboard, and the second on the larboard, and so on till the whole are fixed. By this method, the yards are braced to a greater degree of obliquity, when the sails are close hauled, which could not be, were the foremost shrouds last fitted on the mast-head. SWIFTERS are swayed over the mast-head, next above the shrouds; and are fixed on the starboard and larboard side of the mast. They are extended from the mast-head to the starboard and larboard sides of the ship, to support the masts, and enable them to carry sails, &c. THE STAY is hoisted over the mast-head, and supports the mast on the forepart, by extending from its upper end towards the fore part of the ship. THE PREVENTER-STAY is next hoisted over the mast-head, the same as the former. THE TOP is next got over the mast-head, by the girtlines. Four holes are bored through; one in the middle of the square hole on each side, and two in the forepart, four inches on each side the middle of the top, except the mizen-top, which is bored in the aft part. The top is hoisted on-board by the girtlines, and placed up against the aftside of the mast, except the mizen, which is to be placed on the foreside. The girtline is made fast, for hoisting the top over the mast-head, as |
follows: reeve one end of each girtline through the hole by the middle of the square hole, and take a whole round turn round the sides of the top; make it fast to the standing part, with two half hitches, and stop it with spun-yarn through the midship holes in the fore part, except the mizen-top, which is stopt at the aft part. The girtline at the next mast-head is made fast to the aft part of the main and fore top, and fore part of the mizen-top. The top is then hoisted by its girtlines over the mast-head, and guyed clear of the trestle-trees by the girtline from the next mast-head. When it bears against the mast-head, the stops are cut, and the top is swayed up till it goes over the mast-head and falls to its place.DEAD-EYES are then turned into the lower end of the shrouds, left-handed, (being cable-laid rope,) with a throat-seizing clapt on close to the dead-eye, and above that a round seizing crossed, and the end of the shroud whipt with spun-yarn, and capped with canvas well tarred.LANIARDS are reeved through the dead-eyes: the end of the laniard is thrust through the after-hole of the upper dead-eye, and stopt with a walnut-knot, to prevent its slipping; the other end is passed through the after-hole of the lower dead-eye, and, returning upwards, is conveyed through the second hole in the upper dead-eye, and next through the second hole in the lower dead-eye, and finally through the third hole in both dead-eyes. The end of the laniard, being directed upwards from the lower dead-eye, is set up by the runner and tackle, which hooks in the runner-pendent: a luff-tackle is also hooked to a selvagee in the shroud, and the lower part hooked to the laniard with a cats-paw, and bowsed tight: the fall is then made fast to the hook of the runner with another cats-paw; the runner is swayed up very tight, and the laniards are then nipped together with a strand of rope-yarn. To make the whole slide with ease through the holes in the dead-eyes, it is smeared with tallow, that all the turns may bear an equal proportion of the strain. When the shrouds are set up for a full due, (which is when the mast is stayed forward and the stays all set up,) the laniard is nipped, or stopt, as before observed, and the end passed betwixt the throat-seizing, and the dead-eye, with a hitch, then brought round all the parts, in turns, to expend the laniard, and the end is well stopt to the shroud with spun-yarn. It is customary to set up the shrouds the first time, with temporary laniards of worn rope, and spun-yarn seizings; and the proper laniards and seizings, when set up the last time for sea.FUTTOCK STAVES are seized along the lower shrouds horizontally, as much below the upper-side of the trestle-trees as the cap is above. The shrouds are then swiftered together: viz. a spar is lashed to the outside of the shrouds about six feet below the futtock-stave; a single block is then lashed round each shroud and spar, (except the fore and after shrouds,) so that all come in together; the swifting-line is then reeved through each block, from side to side, beginning in the middle, one end leading aft, the other forward; it then crosses, and reeves through two leading-blocks, one on each side the deck, and is bowsed tight till the shrouds come into the length of the catharpin legs, which are seized at each end, round the futtock-stave and shroud. RATLINGS are fastened horizontally to the shrouds, at regular distances, from the futtock-staff downwards, and small spars or boat-oars are seized to the shrouds, about five feet asunder, for the men to stand upon. The first ratling to be thirteen inches below the futtock-staff on the lower shrouds. The ratlings are fastened round each shroud with a clove-hitch, except at the ends, which have an eye spliced in and seized round the shroud. Each ratling is placed thirteen inches asunder. The fore and aftermost shroud are left out for the first six ratlings down from the futtock-staff; and like-wise the six lower ratlings next the dead eyes. The topmast-shrouds are rattled in the same manner; the first ratling thirteen inches below the futtock-staff, and rattled throughout. The swifters on the |
lower shrouds are then removed lower down, half way between the dead-eyes, and bowsed tight, there to remain.THE CAP is next swayed up into the top by the girt lines. TOPMASTS.
THE GIRTLINES are now taken down from the mast-head, and one of the top-blocks is securely lashed round the mast-head below the cap. The end of a hawser then leads up from aft outside the trestle-trees, and reeves through the top-block at the mast-head, then leads down inside the fore part of the trestle-trees, and reeves through the sheave-hole in the heel of the topmast, and is racked to the topmast in two or three places between the heel and the hounds. It is there well stopt with three-fourth lashing, and enough of the end left to make fast round the mast-head. The other end of the hawser is conveyed to the capstern through a snatch-block that is lashed fast to the bits at the aft part of the mast. When the topmast is hove high enough to enter the trestle-trees, the end of the hawser is made fast round the mast-head. The men in the top stand ready to place the cap over the head of the topmast, and stop it with lashing, a little below the hounds, in a secure manner. The topmast is then hove high enough for the cap to enter over the lower mast-head, and then lowered a little, and the cap beat down firmly on the mast-head with malls, when the lashing is taken off. This method is used in ships where the cap is too heavy to be got over the mast-head by the hands in the top. As the topmast is elevated the rackings are cut. The cap being firmly fixed on the lower mast-head, the top-rope-pendent is reeved through an iron bound block, hooked through an eye-bolt on one side of the cap, then downwards, and reeved through a hole with a sheave in the heel of the topmast, and brought upwards on the other side of the mast, and made fast to an eye-bolt in the cap on the opposite side the top-block. To the lower end of the top-rope-pendent is hooked, through the thimble, the block of the top-tackle, connected by its fall to a block hooked to an eye-bolt in the deck, and brought to the capstern. The topmast cross-trees are swayed up into the top with the girtline, and got over the topmast-head by the men in the top. The girtline-blocks are again lashed to the topmast-head, as they were to the lowermast-head, and the girtline reeved through, that one part may lead down by the side of the mast, and the other part abaft the top. BURTON-PENDENTS are hoisted by the girt-lines, and placed over the topmast-head, that the thimbles may hang on each side, to hook the burton-tackles in. SHROUDS are swayed and placed over the topmast-head; the first pair to lead down on the starboard side forward, the next pair on the larboard side forward; and so with the other two pair. BACK-STAYS are hoisted and placed over the topmast-head; the breast back-stay first, and the standing back-stays next. STAYS are swayed and placed over the topmast-head; the stay first, and the preventer-stay next. TOPMAST-CAP is next swayed up by the girt-lines into the top, and got upon the topmast-head by the men in the top, and beat down firm. The girt-lines are unlashed and taken down, and the topmast hove up and fidded. FUTTOCK-PLATES are put through the holes in the edge of the top. FUTTOCK-SHROUDS are furnished with iron hooks, in the upper-ends, that hook to a hole in the lower ends of the futtock-plates; and the lower ends of the futtock-shrouds are attached to the lower-shrouds, with a round turn round the futtock-mast and shroud, and seized upon the standing part of the shroud with two seizings crossed. |
DEAD-EYES are turned into the lower ends of the topmast-shrouds, as the lower ones are in the lower-shrouds.LANIARDS are reeved through the dead-eye in the shrouds and the dead-eye in the futtock-plate, as the lower ones, and set up with the top burton-tackles. The topmast-shrouds are to secure the topmast, and the futtock-shrouds receive equal tension by, means of the futtock-plates passing through the top and connecting with the futtock-shrouds below.RATLINGS as the lower shrouds.THE BREAST BACK-STAY has a single block turned into the lower end, with a throat and round seizing, through which the runner is reeved. One end is made fast to the chain-plates, abreast the mast, with a half-hitch, and the end seized down. In the other end is spliced a double block, connected by its fall to a double block that is strapped with an eye, through which a span is reeved, that has an eye spliced in each end, by which it is lashed to the chain-plates. AFTER-BACK-STAYS are set up, the same as a shroud, to a small dead-eye in the after end of the channel. SHIFTING-BACK-STAYS are clenched round the topmast-head, and a thimble spliced in the lower end, to which is hooked a tackle, the lower block of which is hooked to an eye-bolt without-board, and frequently shifted from place to place. BACK-STAYS are extended to the channels on each side, and are to support the topmasts, and assist the shrouds, when the mast is strained by a weight of sail. STAYS are thus set up: The shrouds and back-stays are first cast off, and the mast-head got as far forward as nearly to touch the fore-part of the partners, by the runners and tackles or burtons of the mizenmast. The fore-pendents are frapped together abaft the fore-mast; the runners are passed round the bowsprit with a round turn, and hitched with the bight seized. The falls of the runner tackles then lead in upon deck through a block lashed round each knight-head, and swayed upon by the people on deck. MAIN-PENDENTS are frapped together abaft the mainmast, and the runners made fast round the cable-bits, similar to the fore-mast. The tackles hook to eye-bolts in the deck, and the falls lead aft. MIZEN-BURTONS are brought to the fore-brace-bitts, as the runners are to the cable-bitts. THE FORE-STAY has a heart turned in the lower end with a throat-seizing, and two round seizings above, and the end of the stay capped with canvas, whipped and tarred, then set up with a laniard, that reeves alternately through the heart in the stay and the heart in the fore-stay-collar on the bowsprit. The first four turns lie in scores cut in the hearts, and are tallowed, that the strain may be immediately given to all the turns at once. The laniard is then strained tight by tackles, thus: The upper block of a luff-tackle is hooked to a selvagee fastened round the stay, and the lower block is hooked with a cats-paw to the laniard: then the outer-block of another luff-tackle is hooked with a cats-paw to the fall of the other tackle, and the inner block hooked where most convenient. The fall leads in upon deck, and is swayed by all hands. Then two of the turns, are stopt together with a rope-yarn to prevent their coming up, and more turns taken, and hove on, as before, till the laniard is expended; the end is then well stopped. THE PREVENTER-STAY is set up the same as the fore-stay. THE MAIN-STAY sets up, as the fore-stay, to a heart seized in the bight of the main-stay-collar above the bowsprit-chock. |
THE COLLAR reeves from the starboard-side through a large hole in the standard in the head, (or a large triangular eye-bolt is driven through the stem in some merchant ships,) then reeves through the eye in the other end, and is brought down to its standing part, and securely seized and crossed in two or three places, and the end capped; the heart is then seized in the bight.THE MAIN-PREVENTER-STAY sets up, as the fore-stay, to a heart seized in the bight of the main-preventer-stay-collar, which lashes round the foremast, on the fore-side through two eyes, or through a large eye-bolt in the head, the same as the main-stay-collar.THE MIZEN-STAY leads down from the mast-head through a thimble, seized in the collar, lashed round the mainmast twelve feet up from the deck. It has an eye spliced in each end, and lashes in the fore-side of the mast. A thimble is turned in the end of the stay, after it is reeved through the collar, and set up with a laniard, reeved four or more turns alternately through the thimble in the stay, and an eye-bolt in the deck, that is parcelled and served. The laniard is set tight by the main-runners, and cats-pawed, as much as is required to stay the mast; two of the turns are then stopt together with a rope-yarn, the length of the laniard expended, and the end made fast with a hitch, and seized. TOPMAST-STAYS.
THE FORE-TOP AND FORE-TOP-PREVENTER-STAYS set up through the bees of the bowsprit, thus: A block with a sheave in it is fixed under the holes in the bees, on each side, through which the stay passes; then a long tackle-block is turned into the ends, which is connected by its fall to a single block hooked to an eye-bolt in the bow on each side, and is set up with a luff-tackle, cats-pawed to its fall. The luff-tackle fall leads in upon the forecastle, and is swayed upon by the men. When the stay is set up, the parts of the tackle are stopt together with a rope-yarn, and the fall of the long-tackle is passed through the eye-bolt and arse of the block alternately, till it is expended. The end is then made fast, round all the parts, with two half-hitches. THE MAIN-TOPMAST-STAY reeves through a single block, strapped with a long and short leg; the short leg has an eye spliced in it, and fastened round the foremast-head above the rigging; the long leg goes round the mast, and through the eye of the short leg, and is turned back and seized. The stay, having a thimble turned in the lower end, leads down between the catharpins and the mast. It sets up with a laniard to an eye-bolt in the deck, close abaft the mast, with a luff-tackle hooked to a selvagee, fastened to the stay. THE PREVENTER-STAY reeves through a thimble seized in the bight of the collar, that lashes at the fore part of the foremast close up to the bibs, through the eyes, spliced in the ends of the collar, and then sets up to an eye-bolt, as the topmast-stay. THE MIZEN TOPMAST-STAY reeves through a thimble seized in the bight of the collar that lashes at the fore part of the mainmast, close up to the bibs; a thimble is then spliced in the ends of the stay, which sets up through another thimble (with a laniard) that is spliced in another collar, lashed round the mast as the former, just below the catharpins, with the top-burton-tackle cats-pawed to the laniard. If with a long pole-head, the same as a topgallant-mast. LOWER-YARDS.
Lower yards are rigged as follow. One end of the hawser that hove up the topmast is made fast round the yard with a round turn and two half-hitches, securely stopt with spun-yarn along the yard, in several places, and well stopt at the upper yard-arm. As it is hove on board, the stops are cut, and the runner-tackle of the opposite side is brought on to the quarter of the yard, to lower it easy, as |
the yard advances aboard beyond the middle or slings. The yards are placed square athwartship, before their respective masts. The fore-yard must be kept above the main-stay by the runners, which are made fast round each outer quarter of the yard.HORSES go over the yard-arms with an eye in their outer ends, and stop against the cleats, and hang about three feet below the yard. To keep the horse more parallel to the yard, it is suspended, at proper distances, by ropes, called stirrups, that have thimbles or eyes spliced in their lower ends, through which the horses pass; they are four on each side, and hang three feet below the yard, and the upper ends are opened, plaited, and fastened to the yard with three round turns and nails. The inner ends of the horses have a thimble turned in, with a throat and round seizing; they lash to the yard, on the opposite side of the cleats, with a laniard that passes round the yard and through the thimble.YARD-TACKLE-PENDENTS are next put over the yard-arm, with an eye, as the former. In the lower end is spliced a double block, connected by its fall to a single one, strapped with a hook and thimble, to hoist in the boats, &c.TRICING-BLOCKS, for the yard-tackles, are strapped with a short lashing-eye, that seizes round the yard about one-third the length within the arm-cleats. The blocks to hang under the yard. THE INNER-TRICING-LINE reeves through a block lashed to the futtock-staff; has a long eye spliced in the outer end, that reeves through the hook of the single block; the bight is put over the hook with a couple of turns, and the leading part belays to the shrouds. At sea, the hook is hooked to a becket, or strap, round the futtock-staff. THE OUTER-TRICING-LINE is spliced round the strap of the yard-tackle-block, and reeved through a block on the yard, then leads into the shrouds, and reeves through a block lashed to the shrouds, near the futtock-staff, and down upon deck. BRACE-PENDENTS are next put over the yard-arms with an eye, as above; in the lower end is a single block, through which the brace reeves. Sometimes, in the navy, and oftener in the merchant service the block is lashed to the yard-arm without a pendent. FORE-BRACES reeve through the pendent-block; the standing parts make fast round the collar of the main stay, on each side, with a hitch, and the end seized. The leading part reeves through a single block, lashed on each side the main-stay-collar, close up to the rigging, then leads down, and passes through a sheave-hole in the bitts, at the fore part of the quarter-deck, and there belays. Brigs lead the same. MAIN-BRACES reeve through a single block in the pendent; the standing part makes fast with a clench round an eye-bolt in the upper part of the quarter-piece; the leading part reeves through a snatch-block close aft upon the gunwale, and belays round a cleat on the inside. SPAN FOR MAIN-BRACES has two legs, with a thimble spliced in the end of each leg, which reeves the standing and leading part of the brace, and the span makes fast with a half-hitch, and the end seized up round the mizen-shrouds. PREVENTER-BRACES, in war, are reeved through a block lashed round the yard-arm, and reeve through a block in a span, round the bowsprit-cap; they then lead in upon the fore-castle, and the standing parts make fast round the cap. The main-brace reeves through the block on the yard-arm, then through a block lashed to the fore-shrouds, close below the catharpins; they then |
lead down upon the fore-castle, and the standing-part makes fast to the shrouds above the block with a hitch and the end seized. Brigs reeve the same.TOPSAIL-SHEET-BLOCKS are next put over the yard-arms, strapt with an eye the size of the yard-arm.LIFT-BLOCKS are next spliced into the strap of the topsail-sheet-blocks: the lifts reeve through the block in the span round the mast-head, between that and the topmast, then lead down abreast the shrouds, and reeve through a block fastened to the side, and are there belayed.JEARS, in large ships, are two large tackle. The hanging blocks at the mast-head are hove up close on each side, by the top-burton-tackles, and lashed. A broad elm cleat is nailed on each side the mast-head, above the blocks, as a stop for the lashing. Every turn of lashing is alternately passed through the strap of the block, and over the cleat on the opposite side, and the ends of the lashing are well stopt. The other two blocks are strapt with a double strap to the size of the yard, with a long and a short leg. They lash on each side of the middle or slings, within the cleats. The long leg of the strap goes down the aftside of the yard, and meets the bight of the short leg on the foreside, and lashes, every turn passing alternately through each bight, rose fashion. The blocks, at the mast-head and on the yard, are connected by their falls, which lead upon deck. JEARS, in merchant-ships, and small ships in the navy, have two single blocks lashed on each side the mast-head, as above, and another, the same size, in the middle of the yard. The tye, which connects with these blocks, reeves through one of the blocks at the mast-head, then through the block on the yard, and afterwards through the block on the other side the mast-head. In the lower ends of the tye is spliced a double-block, which is connected by its fall to a treble-block, that hooks to an eye-bolt in the deck, close to the mast, on each side. By this the power of the tackles below is communicated to the tye, which, connecting with the block upon the yard, easily sways it up, or lowers it down. QUARTER-BLOCKS are strapt with a long and short leg, with a lashing-eye spliced in the ends, and lash to the yard within the cleats, in the middle of the yard, the block hanging downwards. The long leg comes up the aftside, and meets the short leg on the foreside, and three lashes through the eyes. Through these blocks reeve the topsail sheets and clue-lines. A quarter-block is a double-block, with a thick and thin sheave running on the same pin; and, though used for the topsail sheets, and intended for the clue-lines, a single block would be cheaper and better, as the thin sheave is seldom used for the clue-line, it being found to impede rather than facilitate. Small ships, in the merchant-service, have a double-block lashed in the middle of the yard, as the quarter-block, through which the sheets reeve, and lead down on opposite sides. Large ships, in the merchant-service, have a single-block lashed on each side the middle of the yard, and the sheets reeve on their respective sides, and lead down by the mast. CLUE-GARNET-BLOCKS lash through the eyes upon the yard, the blocks hanging underneath, four feet without the middle-cleats on each side. LEECH-LINE-BLOCKS are lashed round the yard and through the eye of the strap, ten feet within the cleats on each yard-arm. The blocks to hang on the fore part of the yard. BUNTLINE-BLOCKS are lashed as the former in the middle, between them and the slings of the yard. SLAB-LINE-BLOCKS are strapt with a short lashing-eye, that seizes to the span of the quarter-blocks underneath the yard. |
TRUSS-PENDENTS; the ends that have the thimbles in are passed round the yard within the cleats on each side the middle or slings, and are well seized. One end passes over the yard, the other under, and both ends round the mast. The starboard end reeves through the larboard thimble, and the larboard end through the starboard thimble. In the lower end is a double-block turned in, with a throat and round seizing, connected by its fall to a double-block, that hooks to an eye-bolt in the deck, on each side the mast, by which the truss-pendent is slackened or straightened, to let the yard move from, or confine it strictly to, the mast.NAVE-LINE reeves through a single block, lashed under the aftside of the top, and through a block or thimble seized to the truss-pendents, up again, and makes fast round the trestle-trees. The leading-part goes down upon deck.SLINGS AND STRAPS. The long leg of the strap passes down the aftside of the yard, comes up the foreside, meets the short leg, and lashes through the eyes, the strap being placed exactly in the middle of the yard, and the thimble upwards.SLINGS have a long and short leg, and a large thimble seized in the bight. The long leg passes round the after-part of the mast, and reeves through the eye in the short leg; it is then brought back, and securely seized to its own part in several places. By these the yard is retained at the mast-head with a laniard, that splices in the thimbles in the slings, at the fore part of the mast, and then reeves through the thimble in the strap upon the yard, and so alternately till the laniard is expended. The end then fraps round the turns, and makes fast with two half hitches. In time of action, the yards are slung with chains. TOPSAIL-YARDS.
THE TOP ROPE is fastened to the slings of the yard, and stopt from thence to the yard-arm, by which it is hove on-board, and placed for rigging as follows. First, the HORSES are the same as the lower yards, the addition of flemish-horses excepted, (the lower yards having none.) They have an eye spliced in each end; one eye is put over the eye-bolt in the yard-arm, and the other eye is seized round the yard within the arm-cleats. BRACE-PENDENTS are next put over the yard, as on the lower ones. The fore-topsail-braces reeve through the block in the pendent, and then through a block lashed on each side the collar on the main-stay, a little below the fore-braces; the standing-part makes fast to the stay below the block with a hitch, and seized. The leading-part leads from the block upon the collar of the stay through a block lashed on the stay abreast the fore hatchway, and through a block strapt with a thimble into an eye-bolt in the aft-part of the forecastle, and belays round an iron pin in the boat-skid. MAIN-TOPSAIL-BRACES reeve through the block in the pendent, and the standing-part makes fast to the collar of the mizen-stay. The leading-part reeves through a block in the span round the mizen-mast-head below the hounds, and leads down through a sheave-hole in the mizen-topsail-sheet-bits, abaft the mizen-mast, and belays there. MIZEN-TOPSAIL-BRACES reeve through the block in the pendent. The standing-part makes fast round the peek-end, and the leading-part reeves through single blocks at the peek, and comes down to the fore-side of the taffarel. LIFT-BLOCKS are strapt with an eye to the size of the yard-arm. The lift reeves through the lower sheave in the sister-block in the topmast-shrouds, and through the block on the yard-arm. The standing-part hooks to a becket round the topmast-cap, and the leading-part leads down the side of the mast, and belays to the dead-eyes in the lower shrouds. |
REEF-TACKLE-PENDENTS reeve through the upper sheave in the sister-block in the topmast-shrouds, thence through the sheave-hole in the yard-arm, and are stopt with an overhand-knot, till the sail is bent. In the lower ends of the pendents a double-block is turned in, connected by its fall to another double-block, that is seized to the after part of the lower trestle-trees, and the ends of the falls lead down upon deck.TYE-BLOCKS lash at the topmast-head close up to the rigging, under the collar of the stay, as the lower ones; and the blocks on the yards lash under the fore part of the yard, as the lower ones, and reeve with a double tye, in large ships, and a single tye, like the lower, in small ones. The standing-parts of the double-tyes clinch round the mast-head, then reeve through the double-block upon the yard, and up again, and reeve through the block on each side the mast-head. The tie-blocks are then spliced in their lower ends, and connected by their haliards to a single-block, that is strapt with a long strap, with a hook and thimble, that hooks to a swivel-eye-bolt in the channel on each side: the leading-part comes in through a block lashed on each side; the foremost ones abaft the forecastle, and the after ones on the quarter-deck.THE PARRAL is fastened round the aftside of the mast, and round the yard, to fasten the yard to the mast. The upper and lower rope in the parral have an eye spliced in the end, one eye passing under the yard, the other over, till both eyes meet on the foreside, and are seized together with spunyarn. The other two ends of the parral-rope are passed round the yard and the hind part of the parral, alternately, till the latter is sufficiently secured to the former; and the whole of the turns are marled together with quarter-seizings, to confine them close in the cavity formed on the back of the ribs.CLUE-LINE-BLOCKS are strapt with two lashing-eyes, and lash upon the yard three feet without the slings; the blocks hanging underneath the yard, through which the clue-line reeves, and is strapt with a knot, and leads down upon the deck. TOPGALLANT-SHEET-BLOCKS are strapt with two lashing-eyes, and lash upon the yard, close within the clue-line-blocks on each side. BUNTLINE-BLOCKS are spliced round the strap of the topsail-tye-block upon the yard. TOPGALLANT-MASTS.
THE TOP-ROPE reeves for the topgallant-mast as it does for the topmasts, observing to stop it to the topgallant-mast-head with spun-yarn, to keep it steady, till it has entered the topmast-cap. The stop is then cut, and the end of the top-rope made fast to the eye-bolt in the topmast-cap. Sometimes it is rigged abaft the mast. THE GROMMET, made of a rope spliced to the size of the mast, is first put over the head, and then beat down to the top of the hounds. SHROUDS are hoisted, and placed over the topgallant-mast-head, the same as the topmast. BACKSTAYS are next hoisted, and placed over the topgallant-mast-head, the same as the top-masts. THE STAY is hoisted and placed over all, and then the topgallant-mast is swayed up and fidded. SHROUDS are thrust through the hole in the end of the topmast-cross-trees, and between the top-mast-shrouds, over the futtock-stave. A thimble is seized in the ends that sets up with a laniard through a thimble seized in the bight of a strap made fast round the futtock-plates, close under the dead-eyes, with a turn through the bight. |
BACKSTAYS set up, the same as the topmast-backstays, to a small dead-eye in the aft-part of the channel, or in a stool abaft the channel.The FORE-TOPGALLANT-STAY comes to the outer end of the jib-boom, and reeves through a thimble; then a thimble is turned in the end, and seized to a block, and set up with a jigger-tackle occasionally, and secured, by a laniard, to the gammoning, or to an eye-bolt in the head.THE MAIN-TOPGALLANT-STAY reeves through a block fastened to the fore-topmast-head, has a thimble turned in the end of the stay, and sets up to a thimble in a span, made fast to the trestle-trees of the fore-mast, with a laniard cats-pawed to the top-burton-tackle, or a handspec: in small ships, termed a Spanish-windlass.THE STAYSAIL-STAY is spliced into the topgallant-stay, six feet below the stop of the mast; it then reeves through a block or thimble secured to the fore-topmast-head, takes a turn round the trestle-trees, and belays there. MIZEN-TOPGALLANT-STAY trices up to the main-topmast-head, as the main-topgallant-stay trices up to the fore-topmast-head. THE FLAGSTAFF-STAY goes round the topgallant or royal mast-head with a running eye; is kept close under the truck, by a small cleat nailed on each side, and sets up by hand. The foremost one passes through a thimble at the jib-boom end, and belays round the fore-stay-collar; the main one passes through a thimble above the fore-topgallant rigging, and belays in the top. Mizen one the same to main-topgallant rigging. ROYAL-MASTS, in East-India ships, are rigged as topgallant masts, and generally abaft the waist. THE TOPGALLANT-YARDS
Are hove on-board by the top-rope, as the topsail-yards, and rig with horses, braces, and lifts, over the yardarm, the same as the topsail-yards. THE TYE reeves through the sheave-hole in the hounds of the topgallant-mast, and clinches round the yard in the slings or middle; then has a double-block turned in the lower end, and is connected, by the haliards, to a single-block lashed to the after-part of the lower trestle-trees, under the top: the lower end of the haliards belays round the cross-piece of the bits abaft the mast. PARRAL, as the topsail-yard. FORE-TOPGALLANT-BRACES reeve through the block in the pendent. The standing-part makes fast with a hitch, and the end seized back round the collar of the main-topmast-stay on each side; and the leading-part reeves through a block lashed round the collar, a little below the standing-part; then leads through a block at the aft-part of the fore-top, and belays to a cleat on each side the bellfry. MAIN-TOPGALLANT-BRACES reeve through the block in the pendent, and the standing and leading parts make fast, and reeve to the collar of the mizen-topmast-stay, as the former does to the main-topmast-stay, and lead down into the mizen-shrouds. MIZEN-TOPGALLANT-BRACES are single, and go with a splice over the yard-arm. They lead aft through a thimble at the mizen-peek, and come down on the fore-side of the taffarel. CLUE-LINE-BLOCKS are strapt with two lashing-eyes, and lash upon the yard three feet without the slings. The blocks hang under the yard, through which is reeved the clue-line, which is stopt with a knot. The leading-part leads down the mast, and into the lower shrouds. |
TOPGALLANT-LIFTS are single, and go over the yard-arm with an eye spliced in one end; the other end reeves through a thimble in the topgallant-shrouds, leads down into the top, and belays round the dead-eyes. THE CROSS-JACK-YARD Is hove on-board the same as the other yards, and rigged as follows: The HORSES, BRACES, LIFTS, and TOPSAIL-SHEET-BLOCKS, go over the yard-arm the same as on the other lower yards. A QUARTER-BLOCK is strapt with a double strap, with an eye in each of the four ends, and is lashed upon the yard in the middle, between the cleats. SLINGS AND STRAPS, as the lower yards of the fore and main masts. BRACE-PENDENTS are stopt to the yard about four feet within the cleats at the yard-arm; the brace then reeves through the block in the pendent. The standing-part of the starboard brace makes fast to one of the middle shrouds on the larboard side with a hitch, and the end stopt; and the leading-part reeves down through a single-block lashed to the same shroud a little below the catharpins; it then leads through a truck or double-block seized to the middle shroud, and belays round a pin in the fife-rail, and the larboard braces the contrary. LIFTS, RUNNING. Running-lifts reeve through a block in a span round the mizen-cap, and through the block upon the yard. The standing-part is carried up, and makes fast round the cap, and the leading-part leads upon deck. LIFTS, SINGLE, are spliced through the strap of the topsail-sheet-block, and the other end is carried up, then hitched and seized to an eye-bolt on each side the mizen-cap. THE MIZEN-YARD Is not often used, except in ships above 50 guns, and in East-India ships. It is hove on-board as before observed, and rigs with a jeer-block lashed between the cleats, as before, and likewise a double-block round the mast-head, and both are connected by the jeer-fall. The standing-part is clinched round the mast-head, and the leading-part comes to the mizen-chains; and, after the yard is swayed up, is made fast to an eye-bolt hitched and seized. The remainder of the fall is coiled up, and stops to the laniards of the shrouds on the starboard-side. THE DERRICK-BLOCK is strapt with eyes, that go round the yard and lash underneath, between the slings and the outer yard-arm or peek; the other block is cross-seized into the strap, has an eye spliced in each end, and lies upon the mizen-cap, and seizes or hangs through the eyes under the cap, or upon the upper side of it. THE DERRICK-FALL reeves through the double-block at the mast-head, then through the single block upon the yard. The standing-part is again taken up and reeved through the block at the mizen-cap; an eye is then spliced in the end, the size of the yard-arm, that goes over the peek-end. The leading-part leads from the double-block at the cap through the trestle-trees, and makes fast in the mizen-channel on the larboard-side, as the jeers did on the starboard-side. BRAIL-BLOCKS are strapt together in one strap, and lie over the yard, and seize together underneath; the throat-blocks next the cleats to the mast; the middle-blocks in the middle between the throat-block and peek; the peek-blocks about three or four feet within the cleats at the peek. VANGS. The bight is put over the peek-end with an overhand-knot, and the double-blocks spliced in the lower ends are connected by their falls to a single block, that hooks to an eye-bolt in the upper |
part of the quarter-piece on each side. The standing-part makes fast to the becket in the arse of the single-block, and the leading-part leads from the double-block, and belays to a cleat nailed on the taffarel fife-rail, or round the arse of the single-block.BOWLINES reeve through a single-block strapt with a thimble into an eye-bolt in the lower end of the yard, and through a block hooked to an eye-bolt on each side abreast the lower end of the yard, or lashed to the mizen-shrouds.THE HORSE for the mizen-sheets clinches to an eye-blot on each side the taffarel with a thimble, to which is strapt the sheet-block. DRIVER OR SPANKER-BOOM. THE TOPPING-LIFT goes over the end of the boom with a clove-hitch, and comes against the shoulder; the ends are reeved through a single-block lashed on each side the mizen-mast-head, and a double-block spliced in each lower end, which connects by the fall to a single-block, hooked in an eye-bolt in the mizen-channel on each side. The standing-part makes fast to the becket in the arse of the single-block, and the leading-part leads from the double-block, and belays to a cleat on each side the mizen-mast-. GUY-PENDENTS have a hook and thimble spliced in one end, that hooks to the thimbles seized in the strap. They are spliced round the boom perpendicular to the lower block fixed round the horse within the taffarel; and there stopt by cleats nailed on the foreside. A thimble is spliced in the inner ends of the pendents, with a luff-tackle hooked in them on each side, and are used where most wanted. SHROUDS are set up for sea after the stays, as before; as are also the topmast-shrouds and backstays. |
The Standing Rigging of a Twenty-Gun Ship.
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EXPLANATION OF THE REFERENCES ON THE PLATE DELINEATING THE STANDING RIGGING OF A TWENTY GUN SHIP.
TO prevent confusion of appearance in the plate of standing rigging, the shrouds and backstays are represented only on the starboard side; but it must be remembered, that an equal number of them belong to the larboard side. In ships, from twenty guns downwards, the preventer stays are sometimes placed under the stays; and to them the staysails are bent. |
EXPLANATION OF THE REFERENCES ON THE PLATE DELINEATING THE RUNNING RIGGING OF A TWENTY GUN SHIP.
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The Running Rigging of a Twenty-Gun Ship.
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The Fore and Aft Sails of a Twenty-Gun Ship.
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EXPLANATION OF THE REFERENCES ON THE PLATE DELINEATING THE FORE-AND-AFT SAILS OF A TWENTY GUN SHIP.
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EXPLANATION OF THE REFERENCES ON THE PLATE DELINEATING THE SQUARE SAILS OF A TWENTY GUN SHIP.
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The Square Sails and Driver of a Twenty-Gun Ship.
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SAILS.
JIB. The DOWNHAULER reeves through a small block that lashes to the traveller on the jib-boom, then leads up through the hanks, and bends to the head of the jib. The leading-part leads in upon the forecastle. The HALIARDS reeve through the lower sheave of the cheek-block at the fore-topmast-head, from aft on the starboard-side, and bend to the head of the sail. The leading-part leads abaft the top to the after-part of the forecastle. Large ships have a single-block turned into the haliards, and a whip-fall; the standing-part making fast into the side. SHEETS. The bight is bent to the clue of the sail, and a single-block turned in each inner end, that reeves a whip-fall. The standing-part makes fast to a timber-head, and the leading-part leads in upon the forecastle, and belays to a timber-head before the shrouds on each side. STAY reeves through the sheeve in the cheek-block at the fore-topmast-head from aft on the starboard-side, then through the hanks, and clinches to the traveller upon the boom: a double-block is then turned in the lower end, and connects by its fall to a single-block, lashed to the after part of the foremast trestle-trees, leads upon deck, and belays to the main-top-bowline bitts. OUTHAULER reeves through a sheave-hole at the outer end of the jib-boom; and clinches to the span-tackle of the traveller. The other end has a double-block turned in, which connects, with its fall, a single-block hooked to an eye-bolt in the fore part of the bowsprit-cap, and the fall leads in on the forecastle. INHAULER reeves through a small block lashed on the traveller: the standing-part makes fast to an eye-bolt in the side of the bowsprit-cap, and the leading-part comes in upon the forecastle. FORE-TOPMAST-STAYSAIL. The STAY reeves through the hanks, then makes fast with a running eye round the bowsprit, between the collars and spritsail-yard, then reeves through the upper sheave of the cheek-block, at the fore-topmast-head, on the larboard side; has a double-block turned into the lower end, and connects, by its fall, to a single block lashed to the after-part of the foremast trestle-trees, leads upon deck, and belays to the main-top-bowline-bitts. The DOWNHAULER reeves through a small block that lashes at the tack of the sail, then leads through the hanks, and bends to the head of the sail, and the leading-part comes upon the forecastle. HALIARDS reeve through the lower sheave of the cheek-block of the fore-topmast-head on the larboard-side, and bend to the head of the sail. The leading-part reeves abaft the top to the after-part of the forecastle, and belays to a cleat in the side. |
SHEETS. The bight is bent to the clue of the sail, and leads through a single-block on each side upon the forecastle.OUTHAULER reeves through a block lashed at the outer end of the bowsprit: the standing part makes fast to the tack of the sail, and the leading-part comes in upon the forecastle. THE FORE-SAIL
Is laid athwart the main-stay, ready for bending, and the sheet-block is put over the clue on each side. The tack-knot is then thrust through the clue on the back side, and the strap of the clue-garnet-block put through the clues; the eyes are brought up on each side, and seized at the top. SHEETS are reeved through the sheet-block on each side, and the standing-part seized to a thimble, in an eye-bolt, a little before the gangway. The leading-part reeves through a sheave-hole in the side, a little before the gangway-ladder; then leads forward, and belays round a large cleat in the side. TACKS, SINGLE, lead through the block lashed round the outer end of the boomkin on each side, then lead upon the forecastle, and belay round a large cleat upon the cat-head, or to the topsail-sheet-bitts. TACKS, DOUBLE. The standing-part reeves round the outer end of the boomkin, and the leading-part through a single-block lashed to the clue of the sail, then through the block at the outer end of the boomkin, and leads in upon the forecastle. CLUE-GARNETS reeve through the upper block upon the yard on each side, then through the block at the clue of the sail. The standing-part is carried up, and made fast round the yard by its block with a timber hitch, and the end stopt. The leading-part comes upon deck, and reeves through the sheave-hole in the topsail-sheet-bitts, and there belays. LEECH-LINES reeve through the spritsail-brace-block, under the top, then through the block upon the yard, and the standing-part makes fast with a clinch to the upper bowline-bridle; the leading-part then reeves through a double-block, at the aft part of the top, and upon the forecastle. BUNTLINES reeve through the leg and fall-block, and through a double-block at the aft part of the top; then through a double-block under the fore part of the top, and through the blocks upon the yard, and lead down the fore side of the sail, and clinch to the cringles in the foot. The fall reeves through the leg-block; the standing-part makes fast round the breast-rail, and the leading-part through a sheave-hole in the breast-work, and belays round the rail. BOWLINES reeve through a single-block lashed round the collar of the fore-stay, on the bowsprit, and the outer part reeves on the bowline-bridle, with a thimble spliced in the end, and the bridle clinches to the cringle on the leech of the sail. The leading-part leads upon the forecastle, and belays to the foretopsail-sheet-bitts. SLAB-LINES reeve through a small block lashed to the strap of the quarter-block, and the standing-part clinches with two legs to the middle buntline-cringles. The leading-part leads to the topsail-sheet-bitts, and belays round the middle of the cross-pieces. YARD-ROPES are temporary, and only used to get up the sail; they reeve through tail-blocks that are made fast round the boom-iron at each yard-arm, and one end comes down and makes fast to the upper reef-earing. The leading-part leads upon deck, through a leading-block that lashes to a timber-head or bolt in the gunwale. The sail is then run up to the yard, where the men go and pass the EARINGS, one end of which is spliced to the head-cringle, with a long eye; the other end passes over the yard-arm without the rigging, through the cringle, alternately, two or three times, |
and is passed round the yard within the rigging, and through the cringle, till the earing is expended, and the end made fast with two half-hitches. The outer turns are to stretch the upper edge of the sail tight along the yard, and the inner turns to draw it close. REEF-EARINGS the same. ROPE-BANDS are braided cordage, with an eye made in one end, and one leg longer than the other. The eye of the long leg is put over the short leg, and the eye of the short leg is thrust through the eye-let hole at the aft part of the sail; then the end of the long leg goes over the head of the sail, and passes the eye of the short leg; and so of the rest. The rope-bands being previously reeved through the head of the sail, they are fastened to the yards by their heads, as follow. The long legs come over the yard from the foreside, with a round turn between the head of the sail; the short leg comes up the aft side, and makes fast with a reef-knot upon the yard. The sail is then let fall to see it is clearly bent. For the number of rope-bands, points, and gaskets, for each sail, see the Table II. among the sail tables. POINTS are usually put in the sail, at the sail-loft, thus: an overhand-knot is made in the middle of the point, then thrust through the sail, and knotted close to the sail on the opposite side. GASKETS go round the yard with a running eye, two on each quarter, and one on each yardarm, with a bunt-gasket in the middle that has two legs, and lashes to the yard on each side of the quarter-blocks. THE MAINSAIL
Is laid athwart ready for bending, and the SHEET-BLOCK, TACK, AND CLUE-GARNET-BLOCKS, are placed in the clues, as for the foresail. SHEETS reeve through the sheet-block at the clues. The standing-part is seized to an eye-bolt with a thimble on the quarters. The leading-part leads through a sheave-hole on the same side under the half-deck, and belays to a range-cleat in the waist. TACKS, SINGLE, reeve through the sheave-hole in the chest-tree, one on each side, and through a sheave-hole in the side, and belay round a large range-cleat in the aft part of the waist. TACKS, DOUBLE. The standing-part clinches to an eye-bolt before the chest-tree, and the leading-part reeves through a single-block, lashed to the clue of the sail; then leads in upon deck through the sheave-hole in the chest-tree side. CLUE-GARNETS, as for the foresail. LEECH-LINES reeve through the block upon the yard, and the outer end makes fast with a clinch to the upper bowline-bridle. The leading-part reeves through the double-block at the forepart of the top, and through a double-block at the aft-part of the top; a single block is turned into the lower end, and a whip-fall reeved through it. The standing-part makes fast to the breast-rail, and the leading-part through a block under the breast-rail, and belays round the rail. BUNTLINES reeve as for the fore-sail, and lead forward upon the forecastle. BOWLINES reeve through a double-block that, with a strap, lashes round the foremast five feet above the forecastle, and the outer part reeves upon the long leg with a thimble. The lower bridle is the longest, and clinches to the lower cringle upon the sail. In the other end is spliced a thimble, through which reeves the upper leg, that clinches to the upper cringle. The starboard-bowline belays on the larboard, and the larboard-bowline leads over and belays on the starboard side. Four feet from the bridle is a thimble, spliced and pointed on each bowline, called a lizard, to which is |
hooked a bowline-tackle that makes fast to the bitts, and is bowsed upon until the bowline is made fast to the bitts.
THE FORE-TOPSAIL
Is swayed up into the top by the topsail haliards, that make fast to slings round the middle of the sail, and are then laid in the fore part of the top fair for bending. SHEETS are first passed through the fore part of the clue of the sail, and stopt with an overhand-knot. They reeve through the shouldered-block at the lower yard-arm, then through the quarter-block, and come down before the mast: reeve through the sheave-holes in the bitts, and are there belayed. CLUE-LINES. The straps of the blocks are passed through the clues of the sail, and brought round the clue to the fore part, and securely seized. The clue-lines are passed the same as the clue-garnets of the lower sails, and sometimes have no blocks, but bend to the clue of the sail. BUNTLINES reeve through the block upon the yard, come down on the fore side of the sail, and clinch to the cringles in the foot. The leading-part reeves through a single-block, lashed close under the topmast-cross-trees, leads down through the square of the top, and belays to the shrouds. BOWLINES reeve through the blocks at the bowsprit-cap. The outer part reeves on the lower bowline-bridle with a thimble, as the mainsail. The leading-part comes upon the forecastle, and belays to the topsail-sheet-bitts. REEF-TACKLE-PENDENTS reeve through the upper sheave in the sister-block in the topmast shrouds, then through the sheave-hole in the yard-arm, and clinch to the reef-tackle-cringle in the sail. REEF-EARINGS reeve through their bights in each reef-cringle, and stop to the next cringles and head of the sail, till used.
GASKETS. The yard-arm-gasket reeves with an eye round the yard-arm within the cleats. Quarter-gaskets reeve between the arm and the middle. Bunt-gaskets have two legs, and lash to the yard, with an eye on each side of the tye-block, and fasten thereto, when the sail is hauled up in the bunt. THE MAIN-TOPSAIL
Is swayed up into the top, as the fore-topsail.
BOWLINES reeve through blocks lashed round the fore-mast-head close under the cap: the outer part reeves on the lower bowline-bridle with a thimble, as the fore-topsail. The leading-part comes |
down through the square of the top, reeves through a sheave -hole in the maintop-bowline-bitts upon the forecastle, and there belays,
THE MIZEN-TOPSAIL
Is swayed up as other topsails, in large ships.
BOWLINES bend to the sail as the fore-topsail, and reeve through a single-block seized to the main-shrouds on the opposite side near the futtock-staff; they lead down through a seizing-truck upon the quarter-deck, and belay round a pin in the fife-rail.
THE FORE-TOPGALLANT-SAIL
Is either swayed up to the topmast-cross-trees by the clue-lines, or bent to the yard below. It is hauled out to the yard-arm by the earings, and bends or laces to the yard, as before observed. SHEETS AND CLUE-LINES are bent to the clues of the sail, and lead upon deck, as the fore-topsail. BUNTLINES reeve through a small-block seized to the topgallant-mast-head, then through a thimble seized to the tye, close down upon the yard, and bend, with legs, to the cringles in the foot of the sail. The leading-part comes down into the top. BOWLINES reeve through the thimbles at the jib-boom-end, and fasten to the sail as the topsail, only with a toggle to cast off the bowline for sending the yard down. The leading-part comes upon the forecastle, and belays to a pin in the breast-hook. THE MAIN-TOPGALLANT-SAIL
As the former; the bowlines reeving through the sheave-holes in the after part of the fore-topmast-cross-trees, and leading down upon deck. THE MIZEN-TOPGALLANT-SAIL
As the former; the bowlines reeving through the sheave-holes in the aft part of the main-topmast-cross-trees. THE JACK-BLOCK is used for sending topgallant-yards up or down; it is strapped with a seizing eye, through which reeves a rope, with an eye spliced in one end, and a double-walnut-knot made at the other end, called a button-and-loop. It goes round the mast, is secured by the knot being |
thrust through the eye, and is triced up or down the mast by the topgallant-tye, which bends through the eye of the strap. When the yards are swayed up, the top-rope reeves through the jack-block, and makes fast with a hitch, first taken round the yard in the slings, then stopt at the outer quarter and eye-bolt in the yard-arm. When lowered, the same, except the stop at the eye-bolt. The rigging is taken off or put on by men at the mast-head, when the yards are swayed up or lowered down. ROYALS
Are set flying. THE HALIARDS hitch round the slings of the yard, and through the sheave-hole in the topgallant-mast-head, and lead down upon deck. BRACES go over the yard-arm with an eye; they lead through single-blocks at the next topgallant-mast-head aft, or mizen-peek, and lead down upon deck. East-India ships sometimes have royal-masts, and then the royals rig similar to topgallant-sails. THE MAIN-STAYSAIL
Is seldom bent in ships but at sea, though commonly in brigs. It bends to the main-stay-sail-stay with hanks and seizings. STAY. The upper end clinches round the main-mast-head above the rigging, and the lower end sets up with a luff-tackle round the foremast. HALIARDS reeve through a single-block bent to the head of the sail. The standing-part makes fast round the main-mast-head, and the leading-part reeves through a block lashed upon the rigging under the top, and leads down abaft the mast: a double-block is turned into the end, connected, by its fall, with a single-block, hooked to an eye-bolt in the sides abaft the main-mast. THE DOWNHAULER reeves up through the hanks, bends to the head of the sail, and belays to the main-top-bowline-bitts. TACK bends to the tack of the sail, and lashes the tack of the sail to the foremast or bitts. SHEETS are doubled, and the bight put through the clue of the sail; the ends are reeved through, have a single-block spliced into each end, and falls reeved. Their standing-parts are made fast round a timber-head on each side the fore part of the quarter-deck, and the leading-parts through a snatch-block on each side, and belay to the next timber-head. Sometimes a luff-tackle is clapt on to bowse the sheets aft. THE MAIN-TOPMAST-STAYSAIL
Bends to the topmast-preventer-stay with hanks and seizings. HALIARDS reeve from the aft-side through the cheek-block at the main-topmast-head on the larboard-side, and come down and bend to the head of the sail. The leading-part leads through a block in the side, and belays to a pin in the fife-rail. THE DOWNHAULER reeves through a block seized to the strap of the main-bowline-block; it is then carried up and reeved through another block seized to the topmast-preventer-stay at the catharpins, then upwards through the hanks, and bends to the head of the sail. BRAILS reeve through blocks that are lashed to the strap of the main-bowline-block; they are then carried up and reeve through other blocks, seized to the topmast-preventer-stay, at the catharpins, on each side, and make fast on each side the sail to a cringle on the after-leech. |
TACKS are doubled; the bight is put through the tack of the sail, the ends are reeved through the bight, and lead through a thimble seized on the lower shrouds on each side; they then lead down and belay round a cleat lashed to the shrouds near the deck.SHEETS are doubled; the bight is put through the clue of the sail, and the ends through the bight. A block is spliced in each end, and falls reeved. Their standing-parts make fast on each side to a boatskid next the quarter-deck, and the leading-parts reeve through a block on the gunwale on each side abaft the gangway, and belay to a pin in the boatskid. THE MIDDLE-STAYSAIL
Bends to the middle-staysail-stay with hanks and seizings. STAY. The standing part reeves up through the hanks, and makes fast to a thimble seized in a strap or grommet made fast round the fore-topmast, under the parral. The leading-part reeves through the upper sheave at the main-topmast-head: a double-block is then turned into the end, and connects, by its fall, with a single-block that lashes to the main-trestle trees, and the fall leads upon deck abaft the mast, by which it is set up. HALIARDS reeve through the lower sheave of the cheek-block at the main-topmast head, and bend to the head of the sail; the other end leads upon deck abaft the mast. THE DOWNHAULER reeves through a single-block seized to the stay at the nock of the sail, then leads up through the hanks, and bends to the head of the sail. The leading-part leads upon deck abaft the foremast. TACKS are doubled; the bight is put through the tack of the sail, and the ends reeved through the bight, and each end through a thimble seized in the fore-topmast-shrouds, leading down and belaying in the top. SHEETS are doubled; the bight is put through the sheet of the sail, the ends are reeved through the bight, and each end through a block on the gunwale abaft the gangways, and belay round a boatskid. TRICING-LINE clinches to the grommet round the fore-topmast, and reeves through a block under the fore-topmast-cross-trees, and leads down into the top. THE MAIN-TOPGALLANT-STAYSAIL
Bends to the stay with hanks and seizings. STAY. The upper end splices into the topgallant-stay below the rigging, and the lower end reeves through a thimble seized round the fore-topmast-cross-trees, leading down and making fast in the top. HALIARDS reeve through a sheave-hole a little above the hounds of the main-topgallant-mast; one end bends to the head of the sail, and the leading-part comes down upon deck; and belays to the bitts on the quarter-deck abaft the mast. THE DOWNHAULER reeves up through the hanks, and bends to the head of the sail; and the leading-part comes upon deck abaft the main-mast. TACKS as the middle-staysail. SHEETS as the middle-staysail. THE MIZEN-STAYSAIL
Bends to the mizen-staysail-stay with hanks and seizings. THE STAY clinches round the head of the mizen-mast, then reeves through a thimble seized in a collar lashed round the main-mast, and sets up with a laniard through a thimble turned into the stay, |
and an eye-bolt in the deck abaft the mast. In small ships, the mizen-staysail bends to the mizen-stay.HALIARDS reeve through a block at the head of the sail. The standing-part makes fast round the mizen-mast-head, and the leading-part reeves through a block lashed to the trestle-trees, then through a leading-block in the side, and belays round a timber-head.THE DOWNHAULER reeves up through a block made fast to the collar of the stay, then through the hanks, and bends to the head of the sail. The leading-part belays round the fore-brace-bitts abaft the main-mast.BRAILS reeve through blocks lashed on each side the collar, then through thimbles in a strap put through the sail, and make fast to a cringle on the after-leech of the sail. The leading-part belays round the breast-rail on the quarter-deck. THE TACK splices to the cringle in the tack of the sail, and lashes it to an eye-bolt in the deck abaft the main-mast. SHEETS bend to the clue of the sail, with a long and short leg, having a thimble spliced in the latter. The long leg reeves through a block or bolt in the side, and through the thimble in the short leg, and belays round a timber-head in the side. THE MIZEN-TOPMAST-STAYSAIL
Bends to the mizen-topmast-stay with hanks and seizings. THE HALIARD reeves through the sheave-hole in the topmast above the rigging, or through a block lashed round the mast-head; one end bends to the head of the sail, the other end leads down upon deck abaft the mast. THE DOWNHAULER reeves up through the hanks, and bends to the head of the sail, the other end leads down upon and belays round the breast-rail. TACKS are doubled; the bight is put through the tack of the sail; the ends are reeved through the bight, and through a thimble seized to the main-topmast-shrouds on each side, leading down and belaying in the top. SHEETS are doubled; the bight is put through the clue of the sail; the ends are reeved through the bight, and through a thimble seized in the mizen-shrouds on each side, leading down and belaying round a pin in the hand-rail on each side. THE MIZEN-TOPGALLANT-STAYSAIL
Bends to the mizen-topgallant-stay with hanks and seizings. THE HALIARD reeves through the hole above the topgallant-mast-hounds; one end bends to the head of the sail, the other leads down upon deck abaft the mast, and belays round a pin in the handrail. THE DOWNHAULER reeves up through the hanks, and bends to the head of the sail; the other end leads to the main-top, and belays round the top-rail. TACKS are doubled; the bight is put over the tack of the sail, and the ends through the latter; they are then reeved through a thimble seized in the main-topmast-shrouds on each side, and lead into the top. SHEETS are doubled, and put through the clue of the sail at the tacks, and reeved through a a thimble seized in the mizen-shrouds, on each side near the catharpins, then lead down upon deck, and belay round a pin in the shroud-rack. |
MIZEN-COURSE.
THE EARING reeves, with an eye in one end, round the cringle in the peek of the sail, and makes fast round the peek, as other earings; and the earing at the nock of the sail the same as the peek. LACING is spliced to the peek-earing-cringle, and laces round the yard or gaff through the eyelet-holes in the head of the sail, and makes fast to the nock-earing-cringle. Lacing round the mast is spliced to the nock-cringle, and laces round the mast backwards and forwards on the foreside, and through each cringle on the fore-leech of the sail, making fast to the tack at the lower end. THE TACK sets up with a laniard reeved through the tack-cringle in the sail, and through an eyebolt in the deck. THE SHEET reeves through a block on a horse at the fore part of the taffarel, and through another block, that hooks to the thimble in the clue of the sail, then again through the block on the horse, and the leading-part belays round a cleat on the side. BRAILS. Throat, middle, and peek, brails reeve through blocks on the yard or gaff; and make fast to cringles on the after-leech of the sail on each side. The throat-brails lead down by the mast; the middle-brails lead down to the after-mizen-shroud on each side; and the peek-brails to the fife-rail on each quarter. THE FANCY-LINE has two spans, with a thimble seized in the bight, and a thimble spliced in each end; one thimble reeves upon the throat-brail, the other on the middle-brail, on each side the sail. The fancy-line reeves through blocks lashed at the peek end, and each end bends to the thimble in the bight of the span on each side. When the mizen is set, the brails are hauled up by the fancy-line, that they may have slack, and not girt the lee side of the sail. THE DRIVER OR SPANKER SAIL
Is bent as a temporary matter, and is made fast at the peek and nock with an earing, as the mizen, and makes fast to the yard and gaff with four or five pair of haliards, that reeve through blocks made fast with tails round the yard or gaff, one end of the haliard being bent to the head of the sail. The throat-haliards reeve with a double and single block; the former is made fast round the mast-head, and the latter hooks to the nock-cringle on the sail. THE TACK is set tight with a luff-tackle that hooks to the cringle in the tack of the sail, and to the eye-bolt in the throat of the boom. THE SHEET reeves through a block or sheave-hole at the outer end of the boom, and bends to the clue of the sail; a luff-tackle is cats-pawed to the other end of the sheet; the inner block hooks to the taffarel, and the fall leads in upon the quarter-deck. When this sail is bent to the mast, yard, or gaff, instead of the mizen, it bends exactly the same, only the foot of the sail is extended on the boom as above. DOWNHAULER reeves through a block made fast to the middle of the driver-yard, and leads down the taffarel. LOWER-STUDDINGSAILS
Bend to a yard at the head, with rope-bands, the same as other sails. OUTER HALIARDS reeve through a span-block that is round the lower cap, and bend between the cleats of the studdingsail-yard; the other end leads down upon deck. INNER HALIARDS bend to the upper inner cringle on the head of the sail, then reeve through a tail-block made fast round the quarter of the lower yard, and through another block made fast round the yard near the mast, and lead down upon deck. |
TACKS bend to the outer clue on the foot of the sail, and reeve through a block lashed round the outer part of the boom; they are carried aft, and lead through a block lashed to the main chains, come through a port, and belay round a cleat in the waist. The other is carried forward, and reeves through a block lashed to the bees of the bowsprit. The main-studdingsail tack reeves through a block at the end of the boom, and through a block lashed to an eye-bolt in the buttock; and leads in through a snatch-block lashed on the quarter on each side.SHEETS are doubled; the bight is put over, and the ends through the inner clue on the foot of the sail; one leads forward, the other aft. THE FORE-STUDDINGSAIL
Sets flying, or with a boom at the foot. If flying, the foot of the sail spreads on a yard that rigs with a span clinched round each yard-arm. A guy is bent to an eye that is crossed in the middle of the span, and leads aft through a block lashed to the main chains, comes in through a port, and belays round a cleat in the waist. The sail, thus rigged, has no tacks. Booms rig as follow. The hook in the inner end hooks to an eye-bolt in the aftside of the cathead, and the main-studdingsail-boom to an eye in the iron strap on the fore part of the main channel: the end is confined down with a lashing to the chain-plates. The inner end of the fore-boom is confined down with a tackle made fast round the inner end of the boom, and the lower block is hooked to an eye-bolt in the wale. The guy clinches round the middle of the boom, reeves through a block lashed round the spritsail-yard, and comes in upon the forecastle. TOPMAST-STUDDINGSAILS
Bend to a yard at the head with rope-bands, or are laced, as the other sails, and the foot is spread upon the boom that slides out from the extremities of the main and fore yard through the boom-irons. HALIARDS reeve through a block in the span round the topmast-head, under the cap, and through the jewel-block, that is strapt with a thimble through an eye-bolt in the extremities of the topsail-yards, and bend to the topmast-studdingsail-yard; the other end leads down upon deck, and belays to the bowline-bitts. THE DOWNHAULER reeves through a block lashed to the outer clue of the sail, and through a thimble on the outer-leech: it is then made fast to the topmast-studdingsail-yard, just within the earing, and leads into the waist. TACKS bend to the outer lower clue of the sail; they reeve through a block lashed to the outer end of the boom, and lead aft through a block at the gangway, and belay to a timber-head. Tack of the main-topmast-studdingsail leads in upon the after-part of the quarter-deck through a block lashed upon the quarter. SHEETS are doubled; the bight is put through the lower inner clue, and the ends through the bight. The after-sheet of the fore-topmast-studdingsail leads in abaft the fore-shrouds. The main hauls in upon the waist. The fore-sheet of the fore-topmast-studdingsail leads in upon the forecastle; the after one before the shrouds. On the middle of the boom is fastened a selvagee, or a strap with a thimble, to which is hooked the top-burton-tackle, to support the boom in the middle. THE BOOMS are run out by the tackles. The strap of the double-block makes fast through a hole in the heel of the boom, and the outer-block to the boom-iron, and the fall leads along the yard. |
THE TOPGALLANT-STUDDINGSAIL
Bends to a yard at the head, as before, and the foot is spread on a boom that slides out at the extremities of the topsail-yards. THE HALIARD reeves through a block seized round the head of the topgallant-mast, above the hounds, or rigging, then through the jewel-block, strapt with a thimble through an eye-bolt at the extremities of the topgallant-yards, and bends to the topgallant-studdingsail-yard; the other end leads down the mast into the top, and belays there. THE DOWNHAULER makes fast to the outer yard-arm within the earing, and leads down into the top. TACKS bend to the outer lower-clue of the sail, and reeve through a thimble in a strap round the outer end of the topmast-studdingsail-boom; and, in merchant-ships that have no boom, through a thimble in a strap round the outer yard-arm of the topmast-studdingsail, and leads aft the tack of the fore-topgallant-studdingsail to the main-chains. The main leads to the quarter-piece. SHEETS are doubled; the bight is put through the lower-inner-clue of the sail, and the ends palled through the bight; one end leads forward, and makes fast to the quarter of the topsail-yard, and the other end leads into the top, and belays to the topmast-shrouds. SPRITSAIL.
The spritsail bends to the yard as the foresail. CLUE-LINES reeve through the blocks upon the yard, and bend or reeve through a block at the clue of the sail, and lead in upon the forecastle. BUNTLINES, DOUBLE, reeve through a thimble in a strap round the bowsprit, and clinch to the cringles at the foot of the sail, and lead in upon the forecastle. BUNTLINES, SINGLE, reeve through a thimble seized to the slings of the yard, and clinch with legs to the cringles in the foot of the sail, and lead in upon the forecastle. SHEETS, DOUBLE, reeve through a block seized to the clue of the sail; the standing-part clinches to an eye-bolt in the bow, and the leading-part comes in-board. SHEETS, SINGLE, bend to the clue of the sail and lead in-board. SPRITSAIL-TOPSAIL.
The spritsail-topsail bends to the yard with lacing and earings. CLUE-LINES the same as the spritsail. SHEETS reeve through the sheet-block at the spritsail-yard-arm, and hook to the clue of the sail, and lead in upon the forecastle through a block lashed on each side the bowsprit. |
VESSELS WITH TWO MASTS.
A SNOW is the largest two-masted vessel, and is extremely convenient for navigation. The sails and rigging on the main and fore mast are similar to those on the same mast in a ship, the braces of the sails on the main-mast leading forward: Besides which, there is a small mast, close behind the main-mast, that carries a trysail, resembling the mizen of a ship. This mast, called the trysail-mast, is fixed in a step of wood upon deck, and the head fixed by an iron clamp to the aftside of the main-top. Vessels in the navy, that resemble snows, have a rope-horse, that sets up abaft the main-mast with dead-eyes and a laniard, to which the trysail is bent, by hanks and seizings, similar to the trysail of a snow. An HERMAPHRODITE is a vessel so construed as to be, occasionally, a snow, and sometimes a brig. It has therefore two mainsails; a boom mainsail, when a brig; and a square mainsail when a snow; and a main-topsail larger than the fore-topsail. Sometimes the boom mainsail is bent to the main-mast, as a brig; or on a trysail-mast, as a snow. BRIG.
The rigging of a brig is little different from the fore and main masts of a ship, the braces of the sails on the main-mast leading forward. The after-main-shroud must be served from the mast-head to the dead-eye, to prevent its being chafed by the main-boom and gaff. The after-backstay is fitted with a tackle, that it may be slacked when the mainsail jibes, or is bowsed forward by the boom-pendent and tackle. They carry no main-yard, but a cross-jack-yard. BILANDER.
A merchant-ship with two masts, but different from others in the shape of the mainsail, which resembles a settee-sail. The head is bent to a yard, similar to the mizen yard of a ship, and hangs to the main-mast, as a ship’s does to the mizen-mast. This method has proved inconvenient, and is now seldom used but by the Dutch. KETCH.
Is a vessel with two masts; the main-mast has a topmast, and carries a mainsail, topsail, and topgallant-sail, similar to a ship’s; and sometimes, abaft the main-mast, is a large gaff-sail, called a wingsail. The mizen-mast sometimes has a topmast, and carries a topsail, and, abaft the mast, gaff-sail, like a ship’s mizen. The bowsprit is long, and on it are set two or three jibs. |
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PLATE 2:
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SCHOONER
Is a small vessel with two masts and a bowsprit. The masts rake aft, but the bowsprit lies nearly horizontal. On the bow sprit are set two or three jibs; on the foremast a square foresail; and, abaft the foremast, a gaff or boomsail; and above those a topsail. Abaft the main-mast is set a boom-sail, and above it a topsail. The main-stay leads through a block, at the head of the foremast, and sets up upon deck by a tackle. By these means, the sail abaft the foremast is not obstructed when the vessel goes about, as the peek passes under the stay. Schooners sail very near the wind, and require few hands to work them. Their rigging is light, similar to a ketch’s, and the topmasts fix in iron rings, abaft the lower mast-heads. LUGGER
Is a small vessel with two masts, and a bowsprit nearly horizontal. On the bowsprit are set two or three jibs; and the lug-sails hang obliquely to the masts, their yards being slung at one-third their length, one on each lower-mast and topmast: the topmast fixes abaft the mast-heads, as those of schooners. Luggers sail well close hauled, and very near the wind. The rigging is very light and simple. The masts are supported by shrouds and stays; the yards have haliards, lifts, and braces. To the lee-clue of the sail is a sheet, and to the windward-clue a tack, which is occasionally shifted as the vessel goes about. When this is often repeated, they loose ground in stays. Some luggers have a small mast and a ring-sail set to it over the stern, and the foot spread by a small boom. In blowing weather they have small lug-sails, the tack of which hauls down by the mast, as their large sails would endanger them, should they chance to get up in the wind. |
CUTTERS, OR VESSELS WITH ONE MAST
MAST.
GIRTLINE-BLOCKS are lashed at the mast-head, like those of ships. PENDENTS OF TACKLES are wormed, parcelled, and served, their whole length; then doubled, and the bight seized to the size of the mast-head: the ends are then spliced together, and a single block seized in the lower bight; the splice to lay on the arse of the block. The ends of all splices are tapered, marled down, and served over with spunyarn. RUNNERS OF TACKLES are fitted with a hook and thimble, spliced at one end and served over; and reeve through the block in the pendent, and through the strap of the long-tackle-block and splices. FALLS of TACKLES reeve through the upper sheave of the long-tackle-block, and through a single-block with a long strap, that has a hook and thimble spliced in it, and hooks to an eye-bolt in the side. The fall is then taken upwards, reeved through the lower sheave of the long-tackle-block, and down again through the becket in the arse of the single-block, and makes fast with a bend, and the end seized up. SHROUDS, four pairs, are fitted and got over the mast-head, similar to those in ships. The after shroud on each side is wormed, parcelled, and served with spunyarn, down to the dead-eye. The STAY is fitted and got over the mast-head similar to that in ships; only wormed its whole length. PREVENTER-STAY, similar to ships. STAY Sets up with a dead-eye, turned into the lower end of the stay with a running or Flemish-eye, and with a laniard, reeved through the holes in the dead-eye, and through holes bored through the head of the stem. PREVENTER-STAY sets up with a laniard, reeved through the holes in the dead-eye in the lower end of the stay, and another dead-eye in an iron-bound-strap, bolted on the fore part of the stem. BOWSPRIT.
SHROUDS are fitted with a hook and thimble, spliced at one end, that hook to an eye on each side of a square hoop driven on the end of the bowsprit. The inner end has an iron thimble turned in, and sets up by a laniard to an eye-bolt on each aide of the bow, and the end secured with hitches. Sloops have HORSES similar to jib-boom horses of ships, and sometimes ratlings. MAIN-JIB-TACK is clinched through the swivel-eye in the traveller on the bowsprit, then reeves through a sheave-hole in the end of the bowsprit, and through an iron-bound-block, hooked and |
moused to an eye-bolt in the side of the stem near the water, and then brought to the windlass over the bow, and hove out; then stopt and belayed round a timber-head.HALIARDS reeve through the block lashed to the head of the sail, and through the block on each side the mast-head. One end has a treble-block spliced or turned in, and connects by its fall to a double-block, that hooks to an eye-bolt in the deck on one side, and the other end belays to an eye-bolt opposite.SHEETS, single or with blocks and falls. Sheets, single, are bent to the clue of the sail, and lead over the bow to the windlass; the double-sheets have two double-blocks lashed to the clue of the sail, and connected by their falls to a single-block, hooked to an eye-bolt near the cathead, on each side. The falls lead in upon deck through a hole in a timber-head, or a leading-block lashed on each side.DOWNHAULER makes fast to the head of the sail, and leads upon deck. INHAULER makes fast to the traveller, and leads in upon deck. HEEL-ROPE reeves through a leading-block, hooked to an eye-bolt in the bow, then through a sheave-hole in the heel of the bow sprit, and the standing-part makes fast to a timber-head, or eyebolt, and the leading-part is connected to the windlass. FLYING-JIB,
Similar to the main jib. FORESAIL
Bends with hanks to the stay. HALIARDS reeve through a block, lashed underneath the collar of the stay at the mast-head, and a block lashed to the head of the sail: the standing-part makes fast round the mast-head, and the leading-part comes down upon deck. DOWNHAULER reeves through the hanks, and bends at the head of the sail, then reeves through a leading-block, made fast to the stay at the foot of the sail, and belays to a cleat on the gunwale. TACK-TACKLE. The block is hooked to the tack of the sail, and connected by its fall to a block, made fast under the stay to an eye-bolt in the bow, and belays to the cross-piece of the windlass. BOWLINES. A hook is spliced in one end, that hooks to the clue; then reeves through a block, lashed to the shrouds on each side, and through a cringle in the leech of the sail, and belays round a pin in the rack-rack. SHEETS reeve through a block made fast to the horse with a thimble, or, in some sloops, a deadeye iron-bound, and through a block at the clue, and so on alternately between the strap of the block and the seizing or dead-eye; then through the thimble at the clue, till the whole sheet is expended, then frapped together and hitched. BOOM.
TOPPING-LIFT is taken upon the starboard-side, and reeved through the upper-block, hooked to an eye-bolt in the mast-head; then lead down and reeved through the block at the boom-end. The standing-part clinches round the mast-head, or hooks to the same eye-bolt; the leading-part comes down, and has a double-block spliced in, or turned, that connects by its fall to a single-block, and hooks to an eye-bolt in the after part of the channel, and belays to a pin in the shroud-rack. Sometimes it has the addition of a runner and sometimes rigged as the driver-boom in ships. SHEETS reeve through a double-block, strapped round the boom just within the taffarel, and through another double-block, strapped round the horse; and very large cutters have a treble-block at the horse, and belays round a large cleat on the taffarel. |
TACK-TACKLE. The double-block is fastened to the tack of the sail, and connects with its fall to a single-block hooked to an eye-bolt in the deck.REEF-PENDENTS OR EARINGS, four in number, reeve through four holes in the outer end of the boom, and have a thimble spliced in one end, wormed and served with spunyarn near their whole length. The other end reeves through its respective reef-cringle on the after-leech; and, when a reef is to be taken in, it is cats-pawed on to the hook of a luff-tackle, to haul down the leech of the sail; and afterwards fraps round the sail and boom, till expended, and makes fast with a hitch. It is common to put old hammocks under the pendent between that and the sail.GUY-PENDENTS have a hook and thimble, that hook in a thimble of a strap on the boom, just without the main-sheet-block. In the inner end of the pendent, is a thimble or long eye spliced, to which is hooked a luff-tackle. Its single-block is hooked near the windlass, to a timber-head or eye-bolt, and the fall leads in-board.MAIN-SHEET. One block straps round the boom near the taffarel, and is confined by a comb-cleat. The other block is strapped with a thimble, and traverses upon an iron horse, secured to the inside of the taffarel, and they are connected by the sheet or fall which belays round a large cleat on the taffarel, or the pin of the block in small vessels. TYE, OR HALIARD, reeves through a block on the span, that clinches or splices round the middle of the gaff. The standing-part of the tye clinches round the mast-head, or hooks to an eyebolt in the mast-head: the other end reeves through a second iron-bound-block, hooked to an eyebolt in the mast-head, and at the lower end is the double-haliard-block, that does not splice as other haliards, but reeves through the strap, and makes fast with a hitch; and the remainder is expended in turns round the block and strap. The haliard-block connects by its fall to a single or double block, hooked to an eye-bolt in the deck, close behind the mast. INNER-TYE is similar to the outer tye, and hooks to an eye-bolt in the jaws of the gaff; then reeves through the lower iron-bound-block, that hooks to an eye-bolt in the aftside of the mast-head, below the rigging. It has a double-block bent to the lower end, and sets up by the haliards;, the lower block hooking to an eye-bolt on the opposite side to the other tye. PEEK-DOWNHAULER reeves through a small-block, strapped round the thimble, in the eyebolt at the outer end of the gaff, and belays round a cleat under the boom. THROAT-DOWNHAULER reeves through a block at the nock of the sail, and leads down the mast. TOPMAST, OR TOPGALLANT-MAST.
SHROUDS are fitted and go over the mast-head as a ship’s topgallant-mast-shrouds, and thimbles are seized in them, in the upper part, for the lifts, and reeve through the holes in the ends of the crosstrees; then come down upon deck, and set up with a thimble and laniard round the lower dead-eyes. STAY splices with an eye to the size of the mast-head; the lower end reeves through the middle sheave of a treble-block, lashed round the bowsprit-end underneath, and leads to an eye-bolt near the stem, to which it sets up with a laniard, through a thimble turned into its end. STANDING-BACKSTAYS, if one pair, go over the mast-head with a cuntsplice: if two pair, with eyes seized, and in the lower end a thimble, and set with a gun-tackle-purchase, hooked to a thimble of a strap round the lower dead-eyes, and sometimes with a laniard and thimbles. CROSS-JACK-YARD.
TOP-ROPE, similar to ships. |
QUARTER-BLOCK is strapped with a double strap, having a long and short leg; and is fixed in the middle of the yard between the cleats: the long leg comes up the aftside of the yard, and meets the bight of the short leg on the fore side, and there lashes through the bights.STRAPS, with a thimble seized in the bight, are spliced or lashed through eyes round the middle of the yard; the thimble in one strap is fixed on the aftside of the yard, the other thimble on the upper side of the yard.CLUE-LINE-BLOCKS are lashed with two eyes round the yard, as ships. Some sloops and light-rigged vessels have no clue-line-blocks: they lower the yard.HORSES go over the yard-arm with an eye as in ships. BRACE-PENDENTS, as ships AFTER-BRACE-PENDENTS, go over the yard-arm with an eye. SHEET-BLOCK straps in the lift with a splice; and a bight is seized in the lift to the size of the yard-arm; and goes over it next the braces. Merchant-vessels sometimes have their topsail-sheets fitted in the same manner. FORE-BRACES reeve through the pendent-block. The standing-part goes out, and clinches round the outer end of the bowsprit; the leading-part reeves through a sheave, on one side of the treble-block, out at the end of the bowsprit, and comes in upon deck. AFTER-BRACES lead in upon the quarter, through a snatch-block, or a sheave-hole in the side; and belay to a cleat or timber-head. LIFTS reeve through a span-block round the cap or mast-head, and lead down upon deck. TACKLE OR HALIARD, for swaying up the yard, is either treble or double, according to the size of the vessel. The upper block hooks to an eye-bolt in the foreside of the mast-head, or to a strap round the mast. The lower-blocks hook to the thimble in the strap, on the middle of the yard; the fall reeves through a sheave-hole in the topsail-sheet-bitts, and leads aft. HORSE lashes round the mast-head, with an eye spliced in the upper end, and sets up with deadeyes and a laniard below. TOPSAIL-YARD.
TYE reeves from aft, through the sheave-hole in the mast-head, comes down, and clinches round the slings of the yard: the other end has a double-block spliced, that connects by its fall to a single block hooked in the channel; the fall leads through a leading-block on the gunwale, and belays to a cleat or timber-head. CLUE-LINE-BLOCKS, HORSES, BRACE-PENDENTS, AND LIFTS, go on the yard as ships. LIFTS reeve through a thimble in the topmast-shrouds, and come down upon deck. BRACES reeve through the pendent-block, and the standing-part goes out and clinches round the bowsprit-end; the leading-part reeves through one of the sheave-holes of a double-block at the bowsprit-end, leads in upon deck, and belays where most convenient. BOWLINES reeve through a thimble in a strap over the bowsprit-end; and go on the bridle at the sail, as in ships: the leading-part comes in upon deck. MAINSAIL
Bends at the head to the gaff with earings and lacing, as the ship’s mizen; and is seized to the hoops round the mast, through the holes in the foremast-leech. THROAT-DOWNHAULER. The double-block hooks to the eye under the throat of the gaff, that connects by its fall to a single-block, hooked to a thimble, seized in the bight of a strap round the mast under the boom-saddle. |
TRICING-LINE reeves through a small block made fast to the above eye-bolt in the gaff: one end splices to the tack of the sail; the other leads down upon deck, and belays to a cleat near the mast.SHEET-ROPE splices into the clue of the sail, and reeves through the sheave-hole in the boom; and a thimble is turned into the inner end, to which hooks the sheet or luff tackle, and the inner-block to a strap round the boom near the jaws. When the sail is hove out, it is lashed with an earing through the clue, and an eye-bolt in the boom-end. TRYSAIL OR STORM-MAINSAIL
Bends as the mainsail, and rigs with the same materials, if no other allowed; but mostly with sheets, and no boom, but like a ship’s mizen. SQUARE-SAIL OR CROSS-JACK
Bends similar to a ship’s main or fore course. BOWLINES reeve through a sheave in the double-block on the bowsprit-end, and on the bridle at the sail, the same as a ship’s. The leading-part comes in upon deck, and belays round the bitts. TOPSAIL
Bends as the ship’s topsail, and rigs similar. TOPGALLANT-SAIL sets flying like a ship’s royal. GAFF-TOPSAIL
Laces to a small gaff at the head. HALIARDS reeve through a sheave-hole at the topgallant-mast-head, and bend to the inner-part of the gaff: the leading-part comes down upon deck. TOPPING-LIFT reeves through a sheave-hole or small-block, seized to the topgallant-mast-head, then through a thimble or small-block seized at the outer end of the gaff: the standing-part makes fast round the topgallant-mast head, above the sheave-holes; and the leading-part comes down upon deck. TACK makes fast the tack of the sail, a little above the rigging. SHEET reeves through a thimble seized at the peek of the mainsail, and bends to the clue of the and leads down upon deck. LOWER STUDDINGSAILS
Bend as ships, and is set flying like a ship’s fore-studdingsail. TOPMAST-STUDDINGSAILS
Bend nearly as ships. HALIARDS reeve through single-blocks, made fast round the mast-head above the rigging: one end reeves through the jewel-block, and bends to the yard: the other end leads down upon deck. SHEETS AND TACKS, as ships’. |
RINGTAIL-SAIL
Is similar to a topmast-studdingsail, and bends to a small yard on the head, and hoisted by the peek downhauler, which serves for haliards. The foot is expanded on a spar, or small boom, lashed to the outer end of the main-boom. MIZEN
Is set on a small mast over the stern. If a square-sail, it bends to a yard, and is hoisted by haliards reeved through the mast-head, and is spread by sheets at the foot. If a spritsail, it bends to the mast with grommets, and is peeked with a sprit; and the foot hauls aft by the sheet to a small boom. WATER-SAIL
Is similar to a lower studdingsail, and bends on the head to a small yard. HALIARD reeves through a small block under the outer end of the main-boom, comes in and makes fast to the middle of the yard, and the leading-part round a cleat on the taffarel. SHEETS make fast to the clues of the sail, and lead in over the quarters. SAVEALL-TOPSAIL.
THE CLUES lash near to the lift-block of the cross-jack-yard. HALIARDS bend to the earings of the sail, and reeve to a block on each quarter of the topsail-yard; and leads down upon deck. SLOOPS AND SMACKS
Are vessels with one mast, and rig as cutters, but much lighter. HOYS AND LIGHTERS
Are vessels with one mast, and sometimes a bowsprit; abaft the mast is a gaff-mainsail, before it a foresail, and a jib upon the bowsprit. The little rigging they have is similar to sloops. SAILING-BARGES
Are vessels with one mast, and sometimes a bowsprit. Those that have boom-sails are rigged similar to sloops; but, having few hands on-board, the boom and gaff is more easily hoisted or topped, the power being increased by the addition of blocks. THE BOOM-TOPPING-LIFT is a long pendent, that goes over the outer end of the boom, with an eye spliced in one end, and in the other end is spliced a double or single block, that connects by its fall to a single-block, hooked in an eye-bolt at the upper part of the mast-head; and the fall leads down to the shrouds at the side, and sometimes rigged similar to a ship’s driver-boom, or cutter’s main-boom. TYE OR HALIARDS of the gaff are rigged to the fancy and ease of the master, &c. The standing-part is fastened to the arse of a standing-block, hooked to an eye-bolt in the mast-head, |
next below the topping-lift; then reeves through a single-block on the span at the peek; then carried up; and reeves through the block near where the standing-part is made fast; then through another block, on a span near the middle of the gaff, and leads up again, and reeves through another single block, hooked to an eye-bolt in the mast-head, below the other block or standing-part, and leads down upon deck; sometimes the standing-part goes over the mast-head, with an eye spliced in the end; then reeves through a block at the peek-end of the gaff, and then through a single-block at the mast-head, below the standing-part; and then through a single-block on a span near the peek; lastly, through another block at the mast-head, below the former block; and then leads down upon deck. The tye has mostly haliards in the lower end, like the cutters.SAILING LIGHTERS OR BARGES, with a sprit-mainsail, rig with a sprit-yard at the head of the sail, hanging diagonally to the mast.THE SHROUDS AND RUNNER-PENDENTS go over the mast-head, with eyes spliced at the ends, or with bights seized close to the mast; and rest upon a trudding or grommet, drove down to the tops on the mast-head.THE STAY goes over all with a running-eye, and sets up with a large three or four fold tackle: the upper-block hooks in a large thimble, turned into the lower end of the stay, or is itself turned into the lower end of the stay, and the lower block is secured to the stern, by hooking into a large strap, for lowering the mast. THE STAY OR STANDING-MAST is set up with a dead-eye, or block, in the lower end, and holes through the head of the stem. SPRIT-YARD-PENDENT. One end splices to a collar or grommet, that is spliced round the middle of the sprit-yard; the other end reeves through a block at the mast-head, comes down, and then a thimble is spliced in, and served over the splice: in this thimble hooks a double-block (in large barges), that connects by its fall a double-block, hooked to an eye-bolt in the deck: a lufftackle is used in small barges. STANDING-LIFT, to top the sprit-yard up, goes with an eye spliced in the end over the lower end of the yard; then leads through a block at the mast-head, has a thimble spliced in the end, to which hooks a double or luff-tackle block, and the lower-block hooks to an eye-bolt in the deck or side. VANGS. Some large barges have vangs like a ship’s mizen, and a downhauler at the peek-end of the sprit-yard. HALIARDS OR TRICING-LINE make fast to the grommet at the nock of the sail, and reeve through a block at the mast-head, and lead down upon deck. THE SPRITSAIL is bent to hoops, that slide on the mast above the snotter, and to hanks below it, that slide on a horse abaft the mast: the tack is secured with several turns round a cleat on the mast, or eye-bolt in the deck, and through the thimble in the tack of the sail. The turns are frapped together, and the end hitched: the nock is secured in a similar manner to a grommet, incircling the mast: the peek is extended to the upper extremity of the sprit-yard, by its going through the peek. SHEET. One end bends to the clue of the sail, the other reeves through a block that traverses on an iron or wood horse (fixed athwart the vessel near the stern), and again reeves through a block, hooked to a thimble in the after-leech of the sail, four feet above the clue; then leads aft, and belays round the pin of the block on the horse. BRAILS are made fast to cringles on the after-leech of the sail, then lead upon each side of the sail, and reeve through small-blocks, seized into the head-rope, and then through blocks lashed to |
the upper part of the shrouds on each side; and lead down through trucks seized to the shrouds below the middle, and belay round pins in the shroud-rack.BRAILS go with two short legs; one spliced in the head-rope near the nock, the other about four feet up the head: the leading-part comes down one side of the sail, and reeves through a cringle, on the after-leech, five or six feet above the clue, and comes upon the other side, and reeves through a block, seized to the nock of the sail, and leads down by the mast.THROAT DOWNHAULER splices to the nock of the sail, and leads down by the mast.HORSE is a rope that goes with an eye over the mast-head, and sets up with a laniard through dead-eyes; one of which is spliced in the lower end of the horse, and the other hooks to an eyebolt near the heel of the mast. SNOTTER is made of two or more turns of a rope, spliced at the ends, and marled closely together, to the circumference of the mast and lower end of the sprit-yard; then served with spun-yarn, and covered with leather, and a seizing clapped on, between the mast and lower end of the sprit yard, which rests in the grommet, by the stop or shoulders made at the end, when the sail is hoisted. LARGE BARGES have a FORESAIL, JIB, CROSS-JACK-YARD, and TOPSAIL, similar to sloops. SLOOPS, SMACKS, BARGES, and LIGHTERS, that go through bridges, have the mast confined in a trunk or wooden cap, above the deck, and fastened in by an iron strap on the aft-side: some have a strong iron hinge at the heel of the mast, or a bolt through the heel; so that it can be lowered at pleasure, by the stay-tackle easing away the fall by degrees. To raise the mast, the fall is brought to the windlass, and hove upon, until the mast is up in its place: the fall is then stopped to the windlass bitts. SHIPS’ LONG-BOATS, OR LAUNCHES,
Are often rigged like small sloops or schooners. SHIPS’ PINNACES AND ROWING BARGES
Sometimes have latteen-sails, and rig with a sliding-gunter, like houarios, or bend to yards, and hoist with HALIARDS, that reeve through a sheave-hole in the mast-head: one end bends to the slings of the yard, on the fore-part of the mast, and the other end belays abaft the mast. SHEETS bend to the clue of the sail, and lead aft. SPRITSAILS, similar to those in sailing barges, are sometimes used. SHIPS, CUTTERS, OR YAWLS,
Sometimes have lug-sails, and rig with a HALIARD, like the pinnace. SHEET AND TACK, like the lugger. |
NECESSARY ROPES, AND VARIOUS OPERATIONS, INCIDENTAL TO RIGGING, PERFORMED ON-BOARD.
AWNINGS. The ridge rope of the poop-awning reeves through the trucks, served along the midships of the awning; the standing-part makes fast with a clinch round the ensign-staff, the leading-part round a roller fixed in the aftside of an iron clasp-hoop on the mizen-mast, and sets up, by a fall, which connects a double-block, turned into its end, to a single-block lashed to an eye-bolt in the deck. The side ropes reeve through trucks, served alongside the awning, with an eye spliced into the end of the standing-part, through which it is seized with spun-yarn to the fore leg of the mizen-shrouds on each side. The leading-part reeves through a sheave-hole in the upper part of a wooden stantion, fixed against the stern on each side, and sets up with a small tackle. The ridge rope of the quarter-deck-awning reeves through the trucks in the middle of the awning, and clinches through an eye in the fore side of the clasp-hoop on the mizen-mast; and the leading-part reeves round a roller, fixed in the aft-side of an iron clasp-hoop on the main-mast, and sets up as the poop-awning. The side ropes reeve through trucks along the sides of the awning, and seize to the foremost leg of the main-shrouds; the leading-part reeves through a block, seized to the foremost leg of the mizen-shrouds, and sets up as the ridge rope. The ridge rope of the main-deck-awning reeves through the trucks in the middle, and clinches through an eye in the clasp-hoop on the main-mast; and the leading-part reeves round a roller, fixed in the aft-side of an iron clasp-hoop on the fore-mast, and sets up as the poop-awning. The side ropes reeve through the trucks, and are seized to the foremost leg of the fore-shrouds; the leading-part reeves through a block, seized to the foremost leg of the main-shrouds; and sets up as the quarterdeck-awning. The awnings are spread and suspended by the middle thus. In the after ends three thimbles are seized, one in the middle, and one on each side, that go over hooks, seized to the hoop on the mast, and shrouds at the sides. The fore part is hauled forward, and stopt to the shrouds, and laces across through eyelet-holes, made at the edges of each awning. In harbour the awnings spread to wooden stantions, bolted along the sides; and, the hands being few, they are hauled forward by tricing-lines, reeved through single-blocks, seized to uprights instead of the masts. In the middle of the awnings, the legs of the crowfoot reeve through the holes in the euphroe, and make fast to the strands of the ridge rope, at equal distances; and that is suspended by the haliard that is spliced round the euphroe, and reeves through a single-block seized to the stay. BENTINCK-SHROUDS have four or six short legs, with an eye spliced in the end of each, which seizes round the futtock-staff and shrouds, close up to the catharpins. The bights of those legs are parcelled and served together, and a large thimble seized therein; in which is turned in another large thimble. The bight of the bentinck-shrouds is parcelled, and served in the way of this thimble, |
round which they are seized with a round seizing. A thimble, or dead-eye, is turned into the lower ends, which sets up with a laniard to a spare dead-eye, or eye-bolt, in the chains, on the opposite sides. BOATS. The necessary ropes belonging to these are: the painter, which splices round a thimble in the ring-bolt within the bow. The sternfast splices round a thimble in the ring bolt within the stern. Fenders are made of worn cable-laid rope, doubled three or four times, and sewed together with spunyarn thus: the rope is first doubled, and a laniard thrust through the bight, and a wall-knot crowned on the end: the ends are then brought up in the bight, and the four parts sewed together. Rudder-laniards: the ends are thrust through holes in the after part of the rudder, on contrary sides; and a double wall-knot, crowned, is made at the ends; the inner ends make fast on each quarter of the boat within side. Slings have a hook and thimble spliced in each end, with a long and short leg, by having a thimble seized in the bight at one-third the length. BOOMKIN-SHROUDS, to support the boomkins, have their after ends hooked to eye-bolts, one above the cheeks of the head, the other in the cutwater: at the fore part, or bight, is seized in a dead-eye, or thimble, which sets up with a laniard to a dead-eye, or thimble, seized in a strap fixed round the outer end of the boomkin. DOLPHINS are made of a piece of worn hawser-laid rope, nearly as long as the circumference of the mast, which has an eye spliced in each end, and is pointed over the whole length. They are occasionally lashed round the mast, through the eyes, as a support to the puddens. ENTERING-ROPE. See Rope. FLAGS. Flags and pendents are hoisted by haliards which reeve through sheaves in the trucks at the mast-heads or small-blocks, seized where wanted. The two ends of the haliards splice together, and reach down to the tops, or down upon deck, and belay; one part of the haliards is bent to the upper part of the tabling, to the lower end, and to several places between, and in proportion as one is hoisted upon, the other is eased away, until the flag is hoisted. The haliards are then belayed. Haliards of pendents are bent to slings spliced round the stick; consequently to haul a flag or pendent down, that part that was hauled upon must now be eased. The ensign-haliards reeve through a sheave in the truck of the ensign-staff, and belay to a cleat near the heel. The jack-haliards reeve through the sheave in the truck of the jack-staff, and belay to a cleat at the heel near the bowsprit. Signal-pendent-haliards are reeved through blocks or thimbles seized to different parts of the ship, as the cross-trees, &c. Signal-flags are hoisted at the mizen-peek, &c. Night-signals are made with lanterns, and are hoisted by the same haliards as the flags. The broad-pendent is hoisted with the shortest side next the mast. FRAPPING of a SHIP is performed by passing a number of turns of a cable over the gunwale and round the hull, and heaving it tight, by thrusting a capstan-bar through the middle of the turns, and twisting them together. The turns are then secured by stopping the end of the bar. This is mostly used when the upper works of a ship are not strong enough to resist the violent shocks of a heavy sea. GRIPES are short ropes, spliced together in the middle, with a dead-eye seized in one bight. The splice lying on the back of the dead-eye, and a hook and thimble seized in the other bight, which hook to ring-bolts in the deck. The straps are ropes, in length once and a quarter the width of the |
boat, spliced together in the middle, and a dead-eye seized in each bight; they are used to secure the boats upon the deck in this manner: the straps are laid athwart the boat forward, in midships, and aft, and set up with laniards, through the holes in the dead-eyes of the straps, and those hooked to the ring-bolts in the deck. GROMMETS. Worn rope spliced together in the form of a wreath, of various sizes, according to the purposes to which they are to be applied. Those for confining the nock of spritsails are served over with spunyarn, and are sometimes covered with leather. GUN-TACKLES. Gun-tackling consists of ropes, blocks, &c. and is to run the guns in and out, and secure them to the ship’s sides in bad weather. Breeching is a rope to secure and prevent the gun from recoiling too much. It is formed with a cunt-splice in the middle, which passes over the pomiglion, or cascabel, of the gun, and through ring-bolts in each side of the carriage, and is clinched to large ring-bolts in the side of the ship, on each side of the port. Preventer-breeching is similar to the breeching, and is used for additional security. The gun-tackle is used to run the gun out of the port, and keep it in a situation for firing. It has-a single-block that hooks to the eye-bolts in the sides of the carriage, and a single or double block, for 32-pounders, that hooks to other ring-bolts by the sides of the ports. Relieving, or train-tackles, are to run guns in, and so retain them, by hooking the double-block of the tackle to an eye-bolt in the train of the carriage, and its single-block to another eye-bolt in the deck; one of which is fixed opposite to every gun. Quoins (Besides those used to elevate and depress the gun) are tapered pieces of wood, like wedges, that are thrust under the trucks of the carriages, and there kept, by being nailed to the deck; they are used to assist in keeping the gun securely housed. Guns are housed, or secured, by taking out the quoins and lowering the breech, so that the muzzle may take the upper part of the port. When thus placed, the two sides of the breeching are frapped under the gun at the muzzle near the breast part of the carriage. The muzzle of the gun is confined by several turns of a rope, or gasket, made fast to it, and through the eye-bolts that are fixed in the ship’s side, over the midships of the port. The lower deck guns are usually kept housed and secured when at sea. LASHING OF BOOMS, that is, the spare topmasts, yards, &c. stowed on the boatskids on each side. They are first secured in different places with several turns of lashing on one side, independant of the other; then they are cross-lashed together in a strong manner, and well frapped in the middle. In gales of wind, to prevent the boom’s shifting, several turns, with a hawser, are taken round the booms, and through large triangular ring-bolts in the sides; and sometimes the turns are passed through an opposite port, and round the side; the turns are then hove tight, frapped, and belayed. MATS are made thus: a small rope or line is first tightly extended, horizontally, at nearly a man’s height, and made fast at each end; across which foxes are placed in a regular manner, and hang down from their middles: then, beginning with the first next the left hand, it is crossed or plaited with that which is next the right hand; then taking that which was to the right hand and crossing it with its next; and so on in succession. This will make the mat downwards; and when finished to the length intended, it is begun again at top till its breadth is completed. Each twist is to be pressed tight; and each couple of foxes is to be twisted together at the bottom, to keep in their twists till the next in succession are interwoven with them. When the mat is completed to its depth, the bottom is selvaged, by placing another small rope or line across in a tight manner similar to the head-line, round which one fox is half hitched, while the next fox is laid up at the back of it, and so on alternately. |
When mats are thrummed, it is thus performed: short pieces of the foxes are thrust under every other overlay of the foxes in every other row. To receive the thrums, a hole is opened with a small marline-spike: the thrums are afterwards cut off to an equal length, and their ends opened. MARTINGAL-STAY, to support the jib-boom, splices with an eye over the outer end of the jib-boom, then leads in through a score, cut in the lower end of the martingal, (which is an ash bar, suspended from the fore side of the bowsprit-cap to which it fastens) has a double-block turned or spliced into the inner end, that sets up, by its fall, to a single-block hooked to an eye-bolt in the head. NETTING is made by laying parallel to each other a number of small ropes of equal lengths; and by seizing each two together at certain distances; taking care that every seizing be between the seizings of the ropes immediately preceding. Or it is made by placing nails in the deck to regulate the size of the meshes, and seizing the ropes together close to the nails. PARBUCKLE. A contrivance to hoist or lower bodies, by fastening the bight of a rope over a fixed object, and passing the ends of it under the body to be hoisted, &c. They are then turned upwards toward the bight, and hauled upon, or slackened, as occasion requires. PASSING-ROPE. See Rope. PREVENTER-SHROUDS are made of a spare hawser, the bight of which is well parcelled: the end is palled round the mast-head between that and the topmast, and seizes as the other shrouds. At each end is turned in a dead-eye, that sets up with a laniard to a spare dead-eye in the channel. PORT-TACKLES have a span with a single-block, cross-seized in the bight; each end of the span is then thrust through holes in the side of the ship, and clinches, or splices, to a ring-bolt on each side of the port: observe, the port should be close shut, that the span may be of sufficient length. Through the single-block in the span is reeved a runner; in one end of which is spliced an eye, that goes over a hook driven in the side of the beam. The other end of the runner splices, or turns in to an eye, made by one end of the fall spliced round another single-block, which serves as a strap to the same. The other end of the fall reeves through another single-block strap, with an eye that goes over a hook driven into the same side of the beam, and the leading-part of the fall belays round an iron clamp, nailed on the side of the beam. PORT-TACKLES on the Quarters have a span and single-block turned in the bight, as the lower ports, and the ends spliced in the ring-bolts in the ports without side. The fall is spliced round a timber-head, or eye-bolt, in the side, and the leading-part reeves through the block in the span, and is hauled upon by men on the deck. PUDDENING of MASTS and YARDS. A small rope, in length twice the diameter of the mast or yard, has an eye spliced in each end, then stretched, and parcelled with worn canvas, woolded round with rope-yarn, tapering towards the ends, and holding a large substance in the middle; then served over with spun-yarn, and sometimes pointed. It has a laniard spliced in one eye, and fixes to the mast or yard, by passing the laniard alternately through the eyes, and stopping the end. When used on masts, they are to sustain the weight of the yards, if an accident happens to the rigging; and, on the yards, to prevent the sheets from chafing the rope-bands, &c. RELIEVING-TACKLES, used when the tiller-ropes are damaged, have one end made fast to a rope strap, with a thimble on each side of the tiller, and the other end to an eye-bolt in the side. ROLLING-TACKLES, to main and fore topsail-yards, are hooked to a selvagee or strap round the lower cap, also to a strap or selvagee round the inner quarter of the yard, and is bowled tight by its fall on each side in the top, and belays round the mast. |
ROPES. Entering-ropes hang from the upper part of the stantions at the gangways. The upper end is thrust through an eye in the stantion, and is walled and crowned; and diamond-knots are made at about nine inches asunder along the whole length. Passing-ropes, which lead round the ship through the eyes in the quarter, waist and forecastle stantions, have one end stopped through the eye of the gangway-stantions, with a wall-knot crowned, and are set up forward with a laniard through an eye-bolt in the knight-heads, and a thimble turned into the end: the same on the quarters. Tiller-rope is white rope, first stretched, then doubled and marked in the middle; and there nailed to the middle of the steering-wheel-barrel: seven turns are next taken round the barrel on each side in large ships, and five in smaller; the ends are then passed through a groove on each side the middle of the deck, under the wheel. To prevent wet going down, over each groove is a small box fitted with a sliding top, and a hole just sufficient to admit the rope which traverses backwards and forwards, as the turns of the rope increase or decrease upon the wheel, by the helm being put on either side; sometimes a leather collar is nailed on the top, and surrounds the rope for 3 or 4 inches high. Each end, passing through the holes in the decks, is reeved through vertical sheaves, so fixed in a block, one on each side the midships close up under the deck in the gun-room, as to direct each end into its respective side, where it reeves through a horizontal sheave, fixed in a block at the end of the sweep; from thence it leads back into midships, along a groove made in the back of the sweep, and is facilitated by rollers, fixed vertically in the back of the sweep. Each end is then passed through an eye, on each side of the upper part of a hoop, that is bolted on the fore end of the tiller; the ends are then passed under the sweep, through an eye on each side, in the middle of a hoop, driven on the tiller farther aft: lastly, an iron thimble is turned into each end, with a throat and round seizing, and sets up with a laniard to an eye-bolt, driven in each side of the tiller, farther aft. In large ships it sets up with a gun-tackle-purchase. When the tiller is worked upon deck, the tiller-rope is stretched, middled, and marked, and placed on the wheel as before: then reeved through a swivel-block, fastened on each side the middle of the deck, under the wheel; and through another that is lashed to an eye-bolt on each side of the ship: then brought into midships, to an eye, on each side of the hoop on the head of the tiller; and is there seized or spliced with a thimble. RUDDER-PENDENTS hook to the ring, in the end of the rudder-chains; the hook is moused; then stopped to hooks driven in the counter, over the rudder, at the quarters, and one between. A long tackle is hooked to a thimble, spliced in the ends of the pendents, and to an eye-bolt in the mizen-chains, and the fall leads in, through a port, upon the quarter-deck. SKIATIC-STAY, for hoisting and lowering burdens out, or in, of ships, clinches or makes fast with two half-hitches, and the ends stopt, round the heads of the main and fore masts, with a tackle depending from it over the hatchway. SPANNING OF BOOMS is performed by passing a rope alternately at angles from one side to the other round the outside boom, spar, or topmast, so as to confine them from rolling about. SPANNING of RUNNERS is taking several turns round both runners abaft the mast, and frapping the turns. STERN-LADDERS are made of cable-laid rope thus: double the rope, that it may be long enough to reach the water, nearly, from the upper part of the stern: then splice an eye in each end, or make an eye in the middle, by splicing the ends together, and a seizing. The steps are commonly tree-nails, thrust horizontally through the strands of the rope on each side, sixteen inches asunder, and a score is cut round the middle, for the concluding-line, or middle rope, which is fastened round every step |
with a clove-hitch in the score. The ladders are lashed to an eye-bolt, in the upper part of the quarter-piece or stern, one on each side. STOPPERS. Shroud-stoppers, used to confine a shroud together where injured, are of different lengths and sizes; have a double wall-knot, crowned, and a laniard, made of sennit, at each end. When used, one laniard is passed round the shroud and stopper, with several turns above, and with the laniard the same below, the wound and the end put under the last turn, and jambed. fore-tack and sheet stoppers, for securing the tacks and sheets till belayed, are of hawser-laid rope, about ten feet long, have an eye spliced in one end, the other end opened out, and made selvagee fashion three-fourths the length. In large ships the fore-tacks lead in under the forecastle, and the stopper reeves through the eye round the topsail-sheet-bitts, and clap on the tack, with a round turn under the standing-part, and lead up with several turns in the cuntline, and the end held on. main-tack-stoppers are of cable or hawser-laid rope, about two fathoms long, have a double wall-knot crowned at one end, and a hook and thimble spliced in the other end, that hooks to a ring-bolt in the side, and claps on the tack, with several turns taken round the tack and stopper, with the laniard close under the knot. FOR deck, dog, and bit, &c. stoppers, see that part of this work which relates to anchoring, &c. SWIFTERS. Those for the bars of capsterns are reeved through holes in the extremities of the bars, so as to strain them firmly together like the spokes of a wheel. TOP-BURTON-TACKLES, to support the yards, and ease the lifts, are sometimes hooked to a selvagee, or strap, round the outer quarter of topsail-yards, and swayed tight by their fall upon deck. TOPPING-LIFT, to support the topmast-studdingsail-boom in a gale of wind, is a pendent clinched round the middle of the boom, then led up through a block lashed to the topmast-cap; the end is then turned up with a throat and round seizing, and a tackle hooked therein; sets up in the top by its fall. This should be done before the sail is set. TRAVELLING-BACKSTAYS, used in bad weather to support the fore and main-topmasts, splice into a span, round the topmast, under the parral, and set up in the chains, with a luff-tackle, to an eye-bolt. They travel up and down the topmast occasionally, with tricing-lines, that splice into a thimble, on each side of the span, and through blocks seized to the topmast-trestle-trees, and lead into the top. WINDING-TACKLE-PENDENT is made fast round the mast-head, with a round turn and two half-hitches. The strap of the fourfold-block is thrust through the eye in the end of the pendent, and a toggle driven through the strap. It is guyed out to the lower yard, to a block securely lashed, that the block may hang over the side. The upper-block is connected by its fall to a treble-block below, and the leading-part goes to the jear-capstan through the deck, or is swayed on by men. YARD-TACKLES are sometimes carried aft and hooked to eye-bolts in the side, and used to prevent too great a strain on the braces in bad weather. |
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DESCRIPTION OF FOREIGN VESSELS.
CAT
IS a vessel used by the Northern Nations of Europe, with three masts and a bowsprit, rigged similar to an English ship; having, however, pole-masts and no topgallant-sails. The mizen is with a gaff. These vessels are sometimes used in the English Coal-Trade. BARK
Is a mediterranean-vessel, with three masts and no bowsprit; the foremast rakes much forward, and carries a latteen-sail; the main-mast is a pole-mast, and carries three square sails, like the polacre; the mizen-mast is small, and carries a mizen and a topsail. Small English ships, having no mizen-topsail, are called barks. PINKS
Are mediterranean-vessels, and differ from the xebec only in being more lofty, and not sharp in the bottom, as they are vessels of burthen. They have long narrow sterns, and three masts, carrying latteen-sails. English-vessels, with narrow sterns, are called pinks. POLACRES
Are merchant-vessels used in the mediterranean. They have three pole-masts without tops, caps, or cross-trees, and a bowsprit of one piece. They have bolsters fixed, as a stop to the shrouds, &c. The mizen-mast is sometimes not in one piece. Their rigging is light, having no topmast-shrouds, &c. but a rope-ladder is fixed instead, from the mast-heads to the upper part of the lower rigging. They carry the same sails as a ship, and have square yards; all of which, except the lower yards, are without horses; for they stand upon the lower yards to loose or furl the topsails, and upon the topsail-yards to loose or furl the topgallant-sails, as the yards are easily lowered for that purpose. POLACRE-SETTEE
Is a vessel with three masts, usually navigated in the levant or mediteranean. These vessels are generally rigged with square-sails upon the main and mizen mast, and a latteen-sail upon the foremast, like a xebec; and sometimes a latteen-sail upon the mizen-mast, and only square-sails on the main-mast. The main-mast ever keeps the rigging of the polacre.
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Norwegian Cat.
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Polacre.
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Howker.
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XEBEC.
A small vessel with three masts, navigated in the mediterranean. The fore and main-masts are called block-masts, being short, and formed square at the head, to receive sheaves, to reeve the jeers, &c. The mizen-mast is fitted with a topmast, &c. similar to a small English ship, and which has been lately added, to keep them better to the wind. They have no bowsprit, but a sort of boomkin woolded and confined to the prow nearly horizontal, (see the galley,) to the outer end of which lead the bowlines. The fore-mast rakes much forward, has no stay, and the shrouds set up, similar to the runners in English-cutters or sloops, to toggles fixed in the sides. These shrouds are easily shifted when the vessels go about. The main-mast is nearly upright, and rigs as the fore-mast. Each mast carries a large latteen-sail, the longest side of which is bent to a yard, that hoists by a parral round the mast, at about one-third its length, the yards are worked at the lower end by bowlines, and the sail extended by a sheet at the clue. The upper lee-yard-arm is worked by a brace, and the strain supported by vangs nearer the mast. The mizen-mast carries a latteen-sail, similar to the main and fore-mast. When the wind is favourable, they carry square-sails, and smaller latteen-sails, when it blows hard. Vessels with latteen-sails will lie one point nearer the wind than a square-rigged vessel. Xebecs, particularly in France, have been rigged similar to polacres, but they never sail so well as they did in their primitive situation. BOMB-KETCHES
Are vessels with two masts, used by the French. The masts are placed, and rigged with sails, as the main and mizen masts of a ship. Upon the bowsprit, and between that and the main-masts, they have staysails, and a very large jib. These vessels discharge their shells from forward; and, when the shell is to be thrown, have an iron chain, (instead of a main-stay,) preventer-shrouds, the backstays doubled, and the yards secured against the shock it receives. English bomb-vessels were formerly rigged as ketches, but of late years like ships. HOWKER.
A vessel of burthen with two masts, (main and mizen,) used by the Dutch and Northern nations. The main-mast is one stick, on which are hoisted three square sails, as in a ship, or only a mainsail and topsail. The mizen-mast has a topmast and topsail; and, abaft the mast, a sail similar to a ship’s driver. They have a long slender bowsprit, on which are set a spritsail and two or three jibs. The Danes have vessels of war, called howkers, which are a part of sloop-of-war with three masts. DOGGER.
A strong vessel with two masts, used by the Dutch, &c. for fishing in the German-Sea, and on the dogger-bank. On the main-mast are set two square-sails; on the mizen-mast a gaff-sail; and, above that, a topsail: also a bowsprit with a spritsail, and two or three jibs. |
KOFF’S
Are Dutch vessels of burthen, with a main and fore mast, and a large spritsail set abaft each. Thus they sail very close to the wind; but, when the wind is aft, they carry flying topsails, and a square sail upon the foremast, and upon the bowsprit two or three jibs. GALLEYS
Are vessels, navigated with sails and oars in the mediterranean; they have two masts, similar to the xebec, but more upright. Abaft the mast-heads is a sort of top like a case, made and surrounded by rails that cross at right angles. The main-mast is supported by ten pair of shrouds, and the foremast has five pair; they set up with laniards, reeved through long flat double-blocks one fixed in the end of the shroud, the other by a toggle to a timber-head in the side. The yards and sails are the same as the xebecs. When the wind is moderate, a mainsail, with a much greater surface, called the large mainsail, is substituted: and, when the wind freshens, a small one, called the foul-weather-sail, is used. Similar changes take place in the sails forward. When the wind is right aft, one sail is set on the starboard-side, and its lower yard-arm and bowline on the larboard side; at the same time, the other sail is set on the larboard-side, and its lower yard-arm and bowline on the starboard-side: this is called setting the sails in the form of hares’ ears. When the wind blows aft and very fresh, a square-sail, called a cross jack, is set on the foremast. When rowing against the wind, the yards are lowered and stowed amidships. HALF AND QUARTER GALLEYS
Are rigged and navigated the same as galleys; and take this denomination from their being much shorter. BOMBAY-GALLEYS
Are like the former, but smaller, and mostly, used by corsairs on the coast of barbary. SETTEE.
A vessel used in the mediterranean, rigged and navigated similar to xebecs or galleys, with settee-sails, instead of latteen-sails. FELUCCA.
A small vessel used in the mediterranean, rigged and navigated similar to galleys; but seldom go out of sight of the coast. HOUARIOS.
Small vessels with two masts and a bowsprit, sometimes used as coasters or pleasure boats, in inlets and rivers of the mediterranean. Abaft the masts are set latteen-sails, with sliding-topmasts. The lower part of the sail is bent to hoops that encircle the lower or standing mast; and the upper part of the sail is laced to the topmast, which slides up and down the lower mast, by grommets or iron rings fastened to the heel of the topmast. The sail is fastened, at the lower part, with a tack to the mast, and, at the peek, with a small earing. The sail is hoisted by a haliard, one end fastened to the heel of the topmast, and the other end reeved through a sheave-hole in the lower mast-head; it leads down towards the heel of the mast, and there belays. The sail is extended by a sheet, fastened to the clue, and led aft. To the heel of the topmast is sometimes fastened a down-haul-rope, that leads down towards the heel of the mast. These sails furl in a close manner to the lower-mast, by lowering the topmasts, and confining the sail in folds, by a furling-line. On the bowsprit is spread a jib, which assists the vessel in going about. These sails are called sliding-gunters, and used in the English navy’s pinnaces and barges. |
Bugalet.
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Dutch Hoy.
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GALLIOT
Is a large Dutch vessel, of burthen, with one mast and a bowsprit. The mast is supported by 4 or 5 pair of shrouds, and a stay which sets up to the stem. Over this stay is another, that leads to the bowsprit-end. Abaft the mast they carry a large gaff or spritsail, and over it a flying topsail, a staysail upon the main-stay, and one or two jibs on the bowsprit, Sometimes a small mast is stepped quite aft, abaft which is set a gaff or spritsail, hauled out to a boom at the foot. FRENCH SHALLOP.
A large decked sloop, of burthen, used in Holland and Flanders, having one mast, carrying a gaff-mainsail. On the foreside of the mast, above the gaff; is a short spar projecting forwards; to which is bent a long narrow sail, the tack of which is made fast to the stem, and the sheet to the side near the shrouds. On the bowsprit are set two or three jibs; and a small mast is often fixed abaft, that carries a mizen. DUTCH HOYS
Are small vessels with one mast, that carries a spritsail, a foresail set to the stem, and a jib upon a short bowsprit. Sometimes they have a short mast abaft, that carries a small spritsail. DUTCH SLOOPS
Are small vessels used upon the Canals in Holland. They have one mast, on which are hoisted a spritsail and a foresail, set close to the stem. There are many fishing boats in Holland rigged the same way, with the addition of a bowsprit and jib, and they are then called pinks. Their sails are generally tanned. BUSS.
A Dutch fishing-vessel with three short masts, each in one piece. On each is carried a square-sail, and sometimes a topsail above the mainsail. In fine weather they add a sort of studdingsail to the lower sails, and a driver. Occasionally they add a jib forward, upon a small bowsprit or spar. To shoot their nets they lower the main and fore masts, which fold on deck by large hinges, and stow aft upon crotches. BUGALET.
A small vessel with two masts, used on the coast of Brittany. The foremast is very short; and on each mast is carried a square-sail, and sometimes a topsail over the mainsail. They have a bowsprit, and set one or two jibs. FISHING-BARKS
Are small vessels with one mast, used for fishing, &c. by the Spaniards. On the mast: they carry a square mainsail, with a jib upon the bowsprit. TARTAN.
A small vessel navigated along the coast of the mediterranean. They have one mast and a bowsprit. A large latteen-sail is carried on the mast, similar to a xebec, and a large jib forwards. When the wind is aft, a square-sail is hoisted like a cross-jack. BEAN-COD.
A small fishing vessel or pilot boat, used by the Portuguese, and rigs with one mast, similar to the tartan. |
JUNKS
Are large flat-bottomed vessels, from 100 to 500 tons burthen, used by the Chinese. They have three masts, and a short bowsprit placed on the starboard-bow. The masts are supported by two or three shrouds, which at times are all carried on the windward-side. On the fore and main mast is hoisted a sort of lug-sail, made of cane or bamboo. The sails are confined by iron travellers, that encircle the mast, and fix to bamboos at several divisions on the sail. The sail is kept to the wind by two ropes, fastened to wood stirrups, fixed to the foot of the sail, and lead to the mast-head. The lee part of the sail is hauled aft, by a rope that branches into short legs, that are made fast to each fold of the sail. On the mizen-mast is a gaff-sail, made of coarse cotton, a topsail made of the same is carried on the main-mast; also a jib and spritsail, that are set on the bowsprit. PARDOS.
Vessels used in the Chinese seas, both for trade and war, not so large as junks, but similar, except that their sails are slackly laced by one side to the masts, instead of being suspended by a yard. CHAMPANS
Are small flat-bottom vessels, used by the Chinese and Japanese. They have one mast, rigged the same as the main-mast of a junk, with a single sail made of cane. They seldom exceed 80 tons burthen; are constructed without iron or nail; and are unfit for rough weather. JAPANESE BARKS
Are vessels similar to junks, 80 or 90 feet long on one deck, but which have only one mast, that carries a square-sail, and forward one or two jibs made of cotton. They only use sails when the wind is large. CARACORES
Are light vessels used by the natives of Borneo, and islands adjacent, and by the Dutch as guarda costas in those latitudes. They are high at each end, and chiefly navigated with paddles, to use which they set both within and without board, on narrow platforms of reeds, supported by bars rigged out across the vessel, and one at the outer end on each side, which serve as balances to prevent its being upset. By placing 3 or 4 ranks of rowers on the platform of reeds outside, and some within, they can multiply their number so as to produce a very great velocity. They have triple-sheers of bamboo for a mast supported by shrouds, on which is hoisted an oblong sail, bent to a sort of bamboo yard at the head, and a boom at the foot. The sail is hauled aft by a sheet, the yard has a bowline to keep to windward, and a brace or vang that leads aft. The sail rolls up or furls by a winch at the end of the boom. |
Chinese Junk.
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Bark of Cracoloa & Straits of Sunda.
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A Single Periagua of Tongataboo Island.
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BARKS OF CRACALOA AND STRAITS or SUNDA
Are vessels with flush decks, high sheer, and sharp forward. They have one mast, and the sail is similar to the caracores, being long and narrow. These vessels are kept from upsetting by a sort of beams crossing the vessel a FLYING-PROW.
A sort of narrow canoe, about 2 feet broad and 36 long, used about the Ladrone islands. Their lee side is flat, and the weather side round. A mast is stept in the weather gunwale; and to the same side is fixed a frame composed of bamboo, projecting out about 11 feet; under the extremity of which, and parallel to the vessel, is suspended an oblong block of wood, formed and hollowed like a canoe, and thus a balance is produced, which prevents the prow’s upsetting; for the weight of the frame (which may be and is sometimes increased by men running out upon it, according to the exigency) prevents its falling over to lee-ward; and the floating properties of the hollowed block of wood at the extremity of the frame, resist the tendency of rolling over to windward. This construction is so extremely light, that she seems to feel no resistance in her passage through the water. Their rigging consists of two stays, that set up at the ends of the prow, and four shrouds that set up at the four corners of the frame. The mast-yard, and boom, are of bamboo. The sail is made of mat, shaped like a settee-sail: the lower end of the yard is confined forward in a shoe. In going about, they keep her way so, that the stem becomes the head; and, to shift the sail, the yard is raised, and the lower end taken along the gunwale, and fixed in a shoe as before; the boom is shifted at the same time, by slackening the sheet, and peeking the boom up a long the mast, then by hauling upon another sheet, the end of the boom is brought to where the lower yard-arm was before, and is hauled aft at the other end. They are steered by paddles at each end. |
PROWS, OF THE MULGRAVE-ISLANDS,
Differ little from the former, as may be best seen by a reference to the plates. PERIAGUAS
Are double and single canoes, used by the natives of several islands in the south seas. Their masts and sails having so much the resemblance of prows and other vessels already described, that a reference to the plates is more elucidating than any description. BOMBAY-BARKS, CALLED DINGAS
Are vessels used at Bombay and places adjacent; and are navigated sometimes by rowing with paddles. They have one mast, one-third the length from the stem, which rakes much forward. On the mast is hoisted a sail, bent to a long yard, resembling a settee-sail. The tack is made fast to the head of the stem, and the sheet to the heel of the mast. These vessels never tack, but wear, in doing which they peek the yard against the mast to shift the sail; at the same time they pass the sheet before the mast. Their rigging consists of a pair of haliards, a bowline, and brace. Their keels are very much hollowed upwards, to avoid wholly grounding on sand banks. BALSAS, or CATAMARAN.
A mast made of the trunks of the balsa, an extremely light wood, lashed together, and used by the Indians and Spaniards in South America. The largest have 9 trunks of 70 or 80 feet in length, are from 20 to 24 feet wide, and from 20 to 25 tons burthen. There is always an odd log, longer than the rest, placed in the middle projecting aft. They have but one mast, in form of sheers, whose heels rest on each side the raft; on which is hoisted a large square-sail. When a fore-staysail is set, a pair of sheers is rigged forward. These masts run with foul winds, and steer, as well as any other kind of vessel, by means of an invention similar to, and perhaps the original of, that which is called "A SLIDING KEEL." They have for this purpose planks about 10 feet long, and 15 or 18 inches wide, which slide vertically in the spaces between the trunks which form the mast. It is only necessary to immerge them more or less, and place a greater or less number at the head or stern of the raft, to make them either luff to, or keep from the wind, tack, wear, lie-to, and perform every necessary manoeuvre. If one of these planks be drawn up forward, the raft will keep away; and, if one is raised abaft, she will come to the wind. The number of these planks is five or six; and their use is so easy, that, being once underway, they work but one of them, drawing it up, and immerging it one or two feet as may be necessary. The demonstration of the theory of working of ships, (given hereafter) will confirm the effects of this construction; which might perhaps be well adapted to many cases of emergency, after shipwreck upon coasts, destitute of all other materials for ship-building. 
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Double Periagua.
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A bombay Bark Called a Dinga.
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SEAMANSHIP. |
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THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WORKING SHIPS.
After having furnished a ship with masts, yards, sails, blocks, anchors, &c. which are the requisites for putting to sea, it becomes no improper transition to pass thence to the use which is made of them in the working of ships; which, like all other sciences, consists of theory and practice. The knowledge of a theory, which is founded upon unerring principles, is surely indispensible for the correct attainment of the practice which it guides; and it cannot therefore be unuseful to shew that the theory of working ships is supported by mathematical principles, and capable of convincing demonstration. M. Bourde de Villehuet, an officer in the service of the French East India Company, has been the most successful in explaining this theory, in his Le Manoeuvrier, published at Paris in 1769. He has, in that, improved upon the works of Pere Hoste, which were published above 100 years ago; and has clearly demonstrated his theory, without requiring such extent of geometrical knowledge as is necessary to the understanding of the elaborate treatise of M. Bouguer. To the theoretic part he has superadded directions for the performance of many evolutions; and has (which renders them particularly valuable) demonstrated the agreement of each with the mathematical principles he had before laid down. To have passed over a work of such character would have been highly blameable: we have therefore translated that part of M. Bourde’s work; and we have incorporated with it directions for the performance of many operations which were unnoticed by that gentleman. The whole, we trust, will form the most extensive collection ever yet brought together; and all founded, we equally hope, upon the surest principles. We do not affect to give specific directions for every possible situation of a ship at sea; because, if such directions could be given, they would most likely be unserviceable from their bulk: but, in explaining the theory upon which all maritime operations ought to be founded, we impart an unfailing source of knowledge to the seaman. Those principles will be his surest safeguard in the hour of danger, and his best assistant in the time of untried difficulty. |
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EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS USED IN SEAMANSHIP.
ABACK. The situation of the sails, when their surfaces are pressed aft against the mast by the force of the wind. ABAFT. The hinder part of a ship, or towards the stern. It also signifies further aft or nearer to the stern; as, the barricade stands ABAFT the main mast; that is, nearer to the stern. ABAFT THE BEAM denotes the relative situation of any object with the ship, when the object is placed in any part of that arch of the horizon which is contained between a line at right angles with the keel and that point of the compass which is directly opposite to the ship’s course. ABOARD. The inside of a ship. ABOARD MAIN TACK! The order to draw the lower corner of the mainsail down to the chess-tree. ABOUT. The situation of a ship as soon as she has tacked or changed her course. ABOUT SHIP! The order to the ship’s crew to prepare for tacking. ABREAST. The situation of two or more ships lying with their sides parallel, and their heads equally advanced; in which case, they are abreast of each other. But, if their sides be not parallel, then that ship, which is in a line with the beam of the other, is said to be abreast of her. With regard to objects within the ship, it implies on a line parallel with the beam, or at right angles with the ships length. ABREAST OF ANY PLACE, means off or directly opposite to it. ADRIFT. The state of a ship broken from her moorings, and driving about without controul. AFLOAT. Buoyed up by the water from the ground. AFORE. All that part of a ship which lies forward, or near the stem. It also signifies further forward; as, the manger stands AFORE the fore mast; that is, nearer to the stem. AFT. Behind, or near the stern of the ship. AFTER. A phrase applied to any object in the hinder part of the ship, as the after-hatchway, the after-sails, &c. A-GROUND. The situation of a ship when her bottom or any part of it rests on the ground. A-HEAD. Any thing which is situated on that point of the compass to which a ship’s stem is directed, is said to be a-head of her. A-HULL. The situation of a ship, when all her sails are furled and her helm is lashed to the lee side; by which she lies nearly with her side to the wind and sea, her head being somewhat inclined to the direction of the wind. A-LEE. The position of the helm when it is pushed down to the lee side. ALL IN THE WIND. The state of a ship’s sails, when they are parallel to the direction of the wind, so as to shake or shiver. ALL HANDS HOAY! The call by which all the ship’s company are summoned upon deck, |
ALOFT. Up in the tops, at the mast-heads, or any where about the higher rigging.ALONG-SIDE. Side-by-side, or joined to a ship, wharf, &c.ALONG-SHORE. Along the coast; a course which is in sight of the shore, and nearly parallel to it.AMAIN. At once, suddenly: as LET GO AMAIN! AMIDSHIPS. The middle of a ship, either with regard to her length or breadth. To ANCHOR. To let the anchor fall into the ground, for the ship to ride thereby. ANCHORAGE. Ground, fit to hold a ship by her anchor. THE ANCHOR IS A COCK-BILL. The situation of the anchor, when it drops down perpendicularly from the cat-head, ready to be sunk at a moment’s warning. AN-END. The position of any mast, &c. when erected perpendicularly on the deck. The top-masts are said to be AN-END, when they are hoisted up to their usual stations. APEEK. Perpendicular to the anchor; the cable having been drawn so tight as to bring the ship directly over it. The anchor is then said to be APEEK. ASHORE. On the shore, as opposed to ABOARD. It also means AGROUND. ASTERN. Any distance behind a ship, as opposed to A-HEAD. AT ANCHOR. The situation of a ship riding by her anchor. ATHWART. Across the line of a ship’s course. ATHWART-HAWSE. The situation of a ship when driven by accident across the fore-part of another, whether they touch or are at a small distance from each other, the transverse position of the former being principally understood. ATHWART THE FORE FOOT denotes the flight of a cannon-ball fired from one ship across the line of another’s course, but a-head of her. ATHWART-SHIPS. Reaching, or in a direction, across the ship from one side to the other. ATRIP. When applied to the anchor, it means that the anchor is drawn out of the ground, and hangs in a perpendicular direction, by the cable or buoy-rope. The topsails are said to be ATRIP, when they are hoisted up to the mast-head, or to their utmost extent. AVAST! The command to stop, or cease, in any operation. AWEIGH. The same as ATRIP, when applied to the anchor. To BACK THE ANCHOR. To carry out a small anchor a-head of the large one, in order to support it in bad ground, and to prevent it from loosening or coming home. To BACK ASTERN, in rowing, is to impel the boat with her stern foremost, by means of the oars. To BACK THE SAILS. To arrange them in a situation that will occasion the ship to move a-stern. To BAGPIPE THE MIZEN. To lay it aback, by bringing the sheet to the mizen shrouds. To BALANCE. To contract a sail into a narrower compass, by folding up a part of it at one corner. BALANCING is peculiar only to the mizen of a ship, and the mainsail of those vessels wherein it is extended by a boom. BARE POLES. When a ship has no sail set, she is UNDER BARE POLES. BEARING. The situation of one place from another, with regard to the points of the compass. The situation also of any distant object, estimated from some part of the ship, according to her situation: these latter bearings are either ON THE BEAM; BEFORE THE BEAM; ABAFT THE BEAM; ON THE LEE OR WEATHER BOW; ON THE LEE OR WEATHER QUARTER; A-HEAD; OR A-STERN. BEAR A-HAND. Make haste, dispatch. To BEAR IN WITH THE LAND is when a ship sails towards the shore. |
To BEAR OFF. To thrust or keep off from the ship’s side, &c. any weight, when hoisting. To BEAR UP, OR AWAY. The act of changing a ships course, to make her sail more before the wind. BEATING TO WINDWARD. The making a progress at sea against the direction of the wind, by steering alternately close-hauled on the starboard and larboard tacks. To BECALM. To intercept the current of the wind, in its passage to a ship, by any contiguous object, as a shore above her sails, a high sea behind, &c. and thus one sail is said to becalm another. BEFORE THE BEAM denotes an arch of the horizon comprehended between the line of the beam and that point of the compass on which the ship stems. To BELAY. To fasten a rope, by winding it several times round a cleat or pin. To BEND A SAIL is to affix it to its proper yard or stay. BENEAPED. See NEAPED. BETWEEN-DECKS. The space contained between any two decks of a ship. BILGE-WATER is that which, by reason of the flatness of a ship’s bottom, lies on her floor, and cannot go to the well of the pump. BIRTH. The station in which a ship rides at anchor, either alone or in a fleet; the due distance between two ships; and also a room or apartment on board for the officers of a mess. To BITT THE CABLE is to confine the cable to the bitts, by one turn under the cross-piece and another turn round the bitt-head. In this position it may be either kept fixed, or it may be veered away. BITTER. The turn of the cable round the bitts. BITTER-END. That part of the cable which stays within-board round about the bitts when the ship is at anchor. A BOARD is the distance run by a ship on one tack; thus they say, a good board, when a ship does not go to leeward of her course; a short board and a long board, according to the distance run. BOARD-AND-BOARD. When two ships come so near as to touch each other, or when they lie side-by-side. To BOARD A SHIP. To enter an enemy’s ship in an engagement. BOLD SHORE. A steep coast, permitting the close approach of shipping. BOOT-TOPPING. Cleaning the upper part of a ship’s bottom, or that part which lies immediately under the surface of the water; and daubing it over with tallow, or with a mixture of tallow, sulphur, rosin, &c. BOTH SHEETS AFT. The situation of a ship sailing right before the wind. BOW-GRACE. A frame of old rope or junk, laid out at the bows, stems, and sides, of ships, to prevent them from being injured by flakes of ice. To BOWSE. To pull upon any body with a tackle, in order to remove it. BOXHAULING. A particular method of veering a ship, when the swell of the sea renders tacking impracticable. BOXING. An operation somewhat similar to BOXHAULING. It is performed by laying the headsails aback, to receive the greatest force of the wind in a line perpendicular to their surfaces, in order to return the ship’s head into the line of her course, after she had inclined to windward of it. To BRACE THE YARDS. To move the yards, by means of the braces, to any direction required. To BRACE ABOUT. To brace the yards round for the contrary tack. |
To BRACE sharp. To brace the yards to a position, in which they will make the smallest possible angle with the keel, for the ship to have head-way. To BRACE-TO. To ease off the lee-braces, and round-in the weather braces, to assist the motion of the ship’s head in tacking. To BRAIL UP. To haul up a sail by means of the brails, for the more readily furling it when necessary. BRAILS. A name peculiar only to certain ropes belonging to the mizen, used to truss it up to the mast. But it is likewise applied to all the ropes, which are employed in hauling up the bottoms, lower corners, and skirts, of the other great sails. To BREAK BULK. The act of beginning to unload a ship. To BREAK SHEER. When a ship at anchor is forced, by the wind or current, from that position in which he keeps her anchor most free of herself and most firm in the ground, so as to endanger the tripping of her anchor, she is said to break her sheer. BREAMING. Burning off the filth from a ship’s bottom. BREAST-FAST. A rope employed to confine a ship sideways to a wharf, or to some other ship. To BRING BY THE LEE. See TO BROACH-TO. To BRING-TO. To check the course of a ship when she is advancing, by arranging the sails in such a manner as that they shall counteract each other, and prevent her from either retreating or advancing. To BROACH-TO. To incline suddenly to windward of the ship’s course, so as to present her side to the wind, and endanger her oversetting. The difference between broaching-to and bringing by the lee may be thus defined. Suppose a ship under great sail is steering South, having the wind at N N W; then West is the weather-side, and East the lee side. If, by any accident, her head turns round to the westward, so as that her sails are all taken a-back on the weather-side, she is said to broach-to. If, on the contrary, her head declines so far eastward as to lay her sails a-back on that side which was the lee-side, it is called bringing by the lee. BROADSIDE. A discharge of all the guns on one side of a ship, both above and below. BROKEN-BACKED. The state of a ship which is so loosened in her frame, as to drop at each end. BY THE BOARD. Over the ship’s side. BY THE HEAD. The state of a ship when drawing more water forward than a-stern. BY THE WIND. The course of a ship as near as possible to the direction of the wind, which is generally within six points of it. To CAREEN. To incline a ship on one side so low down, by the application of a strong purchase to her masts, as that her bottom on the other side, may be cleansed by breaming. CASTING. The motion of falling-off, so as to bring the direction of the wind on either side of the ship, after it had blown some time right a-head. It is particularly applied to a ship about to weigh anchor. To CAT THE ANCHOR is to hook the cat-block to the ring of the anchor, and haul it up close to the cat-head. CAT’s-PAW. A light air of wind perceived at a distance in a calm, sweeping the surface of the sea very lightly, and dying away before it reaches the ship. CENTER. This word is applied to that squadron of a fleet, in line of battle, which occupies the middle of the line; and to that column (in the order of sailing) which is between the weather and lee columns. |
CHANGE THE MIZEN. Bring the mizen yard over to the other side of the mast. CHAPPELLING. The act of turning a ship round in a light breeze of wind when she is close-hauled, so as that she will lie the same way she did before. This is usually occasioned by negligence in steering, or by a sudden change of wind. CHASE. A vessel pursued by some other. CHASER. The vessel pursuing. CHEERLY. A phrase implying heartily, quickly, cheerfully. To CLAW OFF. The act of turning to windward from a lee-shore, to escape shipwreck, &c. CLEAR is variously applied. The weather is said to be clear, when it is fair and open; the sea-coast is clear, when the navigation is not interrupted by rocks, &c. it is applied to cordage, cables, &c. when they are disentangled, so as to be ready for immediate service. In all these senses it is opposed to foul. To CLEAR the anchor is to get the cable off the flukes, and to disencumber it of ropes ready for dropping. CLEAR HAWSE. When the cables are directed to their anchors without lying athwart the stem. To CLEAR the hawse is to untwist the cables when they are entangled by having either a cross, an elbow, or a round turn. CLENCHED. Made fast, as the cable is to the ring of the anchor. CLOSE-HAULED. That trim of the ship’s sails, when she endeavours to make a progress in the nearest direction possible towards that point of the compass from which the wind blows. To CLUB-HAUL. A method of tacking a ship when it is expected she will miss stays on a lee-shore. To CLUE-UP. To haul up the clues of a sail to its yard, by means of the clue-lines. COASTING. The act of making a progress along the sea-coast of any country. To COIL THE CABLE. To lay it round in a ring, one turn over another. To COME HOME. The anchor is said to come home, when it loosens from the ground by the effort of the cable, and approaches the place where the ship floated, at the length of her moorings. COMING-TO denotes the approach of a ship’s head to the direction of the wind. COURSE. The point of the compass on which a ship steers. CRANK. The quality of a ship, which, for want of sufficient ballast, is rendered incapable of carrying sail without being exposed to the danger of oversetting. To CROWD SAIL. To carry more sail than ordinary. CUNNING. The art of directing the steersman to guide the ship in her proper course. To CUT AND RUN. To cut the cable and make sail instantly, without waiting to weigh anchor. To DEADEN a ship’s way. To impede her progress through the water. DEAD-WATER. The eddy of water, which appears like whirl-pools, closing in with the ship’s stern as the sails on. DISMASTED. The state of a ship that has lost her masts. DOUBLING. The act of sailing round, or passing beyond a cape or point of land. DOUBLING-UPON The act of inclosing any part of a hostile fleet between two fires, or of cannonading it on both sides. To DOWSE. To lower suddenly, or slacken. To DRAG the anchor. To trail it along the bottom, after it is loosened from the ground. |
To DRAW. When a sail is inflated by the wind, so as to advance the vessel in her course, the sail is said to draw; and so, to keep all drawing is to inflate all the sails. DRIFT. The angle which the line of a ship’s motion makes with the nearest meridian, when she drives with her side to the wind and waves, and not governed by the power of the helm. It also implies the distance which the ship drives on that line. DRIVING. The state of being carried at random, as impelled by a storm or current. It is generally expressed of a ship, when accidentally broke loose from her anchors or moorings. DROP. Used sometimes to denote the depth of a sail; as, the fore topsail drops twelve yards. To DROP anchor. Used synonymously with to anchor. To DROP a-stern. The retrograde motion of a ship. To EASE, TO EASE AWAY, OR TO EASE OFF. To slacken gradually, thus they say, ease the bowline, ease the sheet. EASE THE SHIP! The command given by the pilot to the steersman, to put the helm hard a-lee, when the ship is expected to plunge her fore part deep in the water, when close-hauled. To EDGE AWAY. To decline gradually from the shore, or from the line of the course which the ship formerly held, in order to go more large. To EDGE IN WITH. To advance gradually towards the shore or any other object. ELBOW in the hawse. A particular twist in the cables by which a ship is moored; explained at length hereafter in the practice of working ships. END-FOR-END. A reversal of the position of any thing is turning it end-for-end. It is applied also to a rope that has run quite out of the block in which it was reeved; or to a cable which has all run out of the ship. END-ON. When a ship advances to a shore, rock, &c. without an apparent possibility of preventing her, she is said to go END-ON for the shore, &c. EVEN-KEEL. When the keel is parallel with the horizon, a ship is said to be upon an even-keel. FAIR. A general term for the disposition of the wind when favourable to a ship’s course. FAIR-WAY. The channel of a narrow bay, river, or haven, in which ships usually advance in their passage up and down. To FALL a-board of. To strike or encounter another ship, when one or both are in motion. To FALL a-stern. The motion of a ship with her stern foremost. To FALL calm. To become in a state of rest by a total cessation of the wind. To FALL down. To sail or be towed down a river nearer towards its mouth. FALLING-OFF denotes the motion of the ship’s head from the direction of the wind. FALL NOT OFF! The command to the steersman to keep the ship near the wind. To FETCH WAY. To be shaken or agitated from one side to another so as to loosen any thing which was before fixed. To FILL. To brace the sails so as to receive the wind in them, and advance the ship in her course, after they had been either shivering or braced a-back. To FISH the anchor. To draw up the flukes of the anchor towards the top of the bow, in order to stow it, after having been catted. FLAT-AFT. The situation of the sails when their surfaces are pressed aft against the mast by the force of the wind. |
To FLAT-IN. To draw in the aftermost lower corner or clue of a sail towards the middle of the ship, to give the sail a greater power to turn the vessel. To FLAT-IN FORWARD. To draw in the fore sheet, jib sheet, and fore staysail-sheet towards the middle of the ship. FLAW. A sudden breeze or gust of wind. FLOATING. The state of being buoyed up by the water from the ground. FLOOD-TIDE. The state of a tide when it flows or rises. FLOWING SHEETS. The position of the sheets of the principal sails when they are loosened to the wind, so as to receive it into their cavities more nearly perpendicular than when close-hauled, but more obliquely than when the ship sails before the wind. A ship going two or three points large has flowing sheets. FORE. That part of a ship’s frame and machinery that lies near the stem. FORE-AND-AFT. Throughout the whole ship’s length. Lengthways of the ship. To FORE-REACH UPON. To gain ground of some other ship. To FORGE OVER. To force a ship violently over a shoal, by a great quantity of sail. FORWARD. Towards the fore part of a ship. FOUL. Is used in opposition both to clear and fair. As opposed to clear, we say foul, weather; foul bottom; foul ground; foul anchor; foul hawse. As opposed to fair, we say foul wind. To FOUNDER. To sink at sea, by filling with water. To FREE. Pumping is said to free the ship when it discharges more water than leaks into her. To FRESHEN. When a gale increases it is said TO FRESHEN. To FRESHEN THE HAWSE. Veering out or heaving in a little cable, to let another part of it endure the stress at the hawse-holes. It is also applied to the act of renewing the service round the cable at the hawse-holes. FRESH WAY. When a ship increases her velocity she is laid to get fresh way. FULL. The situation of the sails, when they are kept distended by the wind. FULL-AND-BY. The situation of a ship, with regard to the wind, when close-hauled; and sailing, so as to steer neither too nigh the direction nor to deviate to leeward. To FURL. To wrap or roll a sail close up to the yard or stay to which it belongs, and winding a cord round it, to keep it fast. To GAIN THE WIND. To arrive on the weather-side, or to windward of, some ship or fleet in sight, when both are sailing as near the wind as possible. To GATHER. A ship is said to GATHER on another, as she comes nearer to her. GIMBLETING. The action of turning the anchor round by the stock, so that the motion of stock appears similar to that of the handle of a gimblet, when employed to turn the wire. To GIVE CHASE TO. To pursue a ship or fleet. GOOSE-WINGS of a sail. The clues or lower corners of a ship’s mainsail or foresail, when the middle part is furled or tied up to the yard. GRIPING. The inclination of a ship to run to windward of her proper course. GROUNDING. The laying a ship a-shore, in order to repair her. It is also applied to running a-ground accidentally. GROUND-TACKLE. Every thing belonging to a ship’s anchors, and which are necessary for anchoring or mooring; such as cables, hawsers, tow-lines, warps, buoy-ropes, &c. |
GROWING. Stretching out; applied to the direction of the cable from the ship towards the anchors; as, the cable GROWS on the starboard bow. GYBING. The act of shifting any boom-sail from one side of the mast to the other. To HAIL. To salute or speak to a ship at a distance. To HAND THE SAILS. The same as to FURL them. HAND-OVER-HAND. The pulling of any rope, by the men’s passing their hands alternately one before the other or one above another. A sailor is said to go aloft hand-over-hand when he climbs into the tops by a single rope, dexterously throwing one hand over the other. HANDSOMELY. Gradually, as lower handsomely. HANK-FOR-HANK. When two ships tack and make a progress to windward together. HARD A-LEE. The situation of the helm, when pushed close to the lee side of the ship. HARD A-WEATHER. The situation of the helm, when pushed close to the weather side of the ship. To HAUL. To pull a single rope without the assistance of blocks. To HAUL THE WIND. To direct the ship’s course nearer to the point from which the wind blows. HAWSE. The situation of the cables before the ship’s stem, when she is moored with two anchors out from forward. It also denotes any small distance a-head of a ship, or the space between her head and the anchors employed to ride her. HEAD-FAST. A rope employed to confine the head of a ship to a wharf or to some other ship. HEADMOST. The situation of any ship or ships which are the most advanced in a fleet. HEAD-SAILS. All the sails which belong to the fore-mast and bowsprit. HEAD-SEA. When the waves meet the head of a ship in her course, they are called a HEAD-SEA. It is likewise applied to a large single wave coming in that direction. HEAD-TO-WIND. The situation of a ship when her head is turned to the point from which the wind blows. HEAD-WAY. The motion of advancing at sea. To HEAVE. To turn about a capstern, or other machine of the like kind, by means of bars, handspecs, &c. To HEAVE a-head. To advance the ship by heaving-in the cable or other rope fastened to an anchor at some distance before her. To HEAVE a-peek. To heave-in the cable, till the anchor is a-peek. To HEAVE a-stern. To move a ship backwards by an operation similar to that of heaving a-head. To HEAVE down. To careen. To HEAVE-IN the cable. To draw the cable into the ship, by turning the capstern. To HEAVE in stays. To bring a ship’s head to the wind, by a management of the sails and rudder, in order to get on the other tack. To HEAVE out. To unfurl or loose a sail; more particularly applied to the staysails: thus we say, loose the topsails and heave out the staysails. To HEAVE short. To draw so much of the cable into the ship, as that she will be almost perpendicularly over her anchor. To HEAVE tight or taught. To turn the capstern round, till the rope or cable becomes straitened. |
To HEAVE the capstern. To turn it round. To HEAVE the lead. To throw the lead overboard, in order to find the depth of water. To HEAVE the log. To throw the log overboard, in order to calculate the velocity of the ship’s way. To HEEL. To stoop or incline to one side; thus they say to heel to port, that is, to heel to the larboard side. HELM A-LEE! A direction to put the helm over to the lee side. HELM A-WEATHER! An order to put the helm over to the windward side. HIGH-AND-DRY. The situation of a ship when so far run aground as to be seen dry upon the strand. To HOIST. To draw up any body by the assistance of one or more tackles. Pulling by means of a single block is never termed hoisting, except only the drawing of the sails upwards along the masts or stays. To HOLD ITS OWN is applied to the relative situation of two ships when neither advances upon the other; each is then said to hold its own. It is likewise said of a ship which, by means of contrary winds, cannot make a progress towards her destined port, but which however keeps nearly the distance she had already run. To HOLD ON. To pull back or retain any quantity of rope acquired by the effort of a capstern, windlass, tackle, block, &c. HOME implies the proper situation of any object; as, to haul HOME the topsail sheets is to extend the bottom of the topsail to the lower yard, by means of the sheets. In stowing a hold, a cask, &c. is said to be home, when it lies close to some other object. To HULL a ship. To fire cannot balls into her hull within the point-blank range. HULL-TO. The situation of a ship when she lies with all her sails furled; as in trying. IN STAYS. See TO heave in stays. KECKLED. Any part of a cable, covered over with old ropes, to preserve its surface from rubbing against the ship’s bow or fore foot. To KEEP AWAY. To alter the ship’s course to one rather more large, for a little time, to avoid some ship, danger, &c. keep away is likewise said to the steersman, who is apt to go to windward of the ship’s course. To KEEP FULL. To keep the sails distended by the wind. To KEEP HOLD OF THE LAND. To steer near to or in sight of the land. To KEEP OFF. To sail off or keep at a distance from the shore. To KEEP the land a-board. The same as To keep hold of the land. To KEEP the luff. To continue close to the wind. To KEEP the wind. The same as to keep the luff. KNOT. A division of the log-line, answering, in the calculation of the ship’s velocity, to one mile. To LABOUR. To roll or pitch heavily in a turbulent sea. LADEN IN BULK. Freighted with a cargo not packed, but lying loose, as corn, salt, &c. LAID-UP. The situation of a ship when moored in a harbour, for want of employ. LAND-FALL. The first land discovered after a sea-voyage. Thus a good land fall implies the land expected or desired; a bad land-fall the reverse. |
LAND-LOCKED. The situation of a ship surrounded with land, so as to exclude the prospect of the sea, unless over some intervening land. LARBOARD. The left side of a ship, looking towards the head. LARBOARD-TACK. The situation of a ship when sailing with the wind blowing upon her larboard side. LAYING THE LAND. The motion of a ship which increases her distance from the coast, so as to make it appear lower and smaller. LEADING-WIND: A fair wind for a ship’s course. LEAK. A chink or breach in the sides or bottom of a ship, through which the water enters into the hull. To LEAK. To admit water into the hull through chinks or breaches in the sides or bottom. LEE. That part of the hemisphere to which the wind is directed, to distinguish it from the other part which is called to windward. LEE-GAGE. A ship or fleet to leeward of another is said to have the lee-gage. LEE-LURCHES. The sudden and violent rolls which a ship often takes to leeward, in a high sea; particularly when a large wave strikes her on the weather side. LEE of the shore. See under the lee of the shore. LEE-QUARTER. That quarter of a ship which is on the lee side. LEE-SHORE. That shore upon which the wind blows. LEE SIDE. That half of a ship lengthwise, which lies between a line drawn through the middle of her length and the side which is furthest from the point of the wind. To LEEWARD. Towards that part of the horizon to which the wind blows. LEEWARD SHIP. A ship that falls much to leeward of her course, when sailing close-hauled. LEEWARD TIDE. A tide that sets to leeward. LEE WAY. The lateral movement of a ship to leeward of her course; or the angle which the line of her way makes with a line in the direction of her keel. To LIE ALONG. To be pressed down sideways by a weight of sail, in a fresh wind. To LIE-TO. To retard a ship in her course, by arranging the sails in such a manner as to counteract each other with nearly an equal effort, and render the ship almost immoveable, with respect to her progressive motion or headway. A LONG SEA. An uniform motion of long waves. LOOK-OUT. A watchful attention to some important object or event that is expected to arise. To LOOSE. To unfurl or cast loose any sail. To LOWER. To ease down gradually. LUFF! The order to the steersman to put the helm towards the lee side of the ship, in order to sail nearer to the wind. To MAKE a board. To run a certain distance upon one tack, in beating to windward. To MAKE foul water. To muddy the water, by running in shallow places, so that the ship’s keel disturbs the mud at bottom. To MAKE sail. To increase the quantity of sail already set, either by unreefing or by setting others. To MAKE sternway. To retreat or move with the stern foremost. To MAKE the land. To discover it from afar. To MAKE water. To leak. To MAN the yard, &c. To place men on the yard, in the tops, down the ladder, &c. to execute any necessary duties. |
MASTED. Having all her masts complete. To MIDDLE a rope. To double it into two equal parts. MIDSHIPS. See amidships. To MISS STAYS. A ship is said to miss stays, when her head will not fly up into the direction of the wind, in order to get her on the other tack. MOORING. Securing a ship in a particular station by chains or cables, which are either fastened to an adjacent shore or to anchors at the bottom. MOORING SERVICE. When a ship is moored, and rides at one cable’s length, the mooring service is that which is at the first splice. NEAPED. The situation of a ship left aground on the height of a spring tide, so that she cannot be floated till the return of the next spring tide. NEAR or NO NEAR. An order to the steersman not to keep the ship so close to the wind. OFF-AND-ON. When a ship is beating to windward, so that by one board she approaches towards the shore, and by the other stands out to sea, she is said to stand off-and-on shore. OFFING. Out at sea, or at a competent distance from the shore, and generally out of anchor ground. OFFWARD. From the shore; as when a ship lies aground and leans towards the sea, she is said to heel offward. ON THE BEAM. Any distance from the ship on a line with the beams, or at right angles with the keel. ON THE BOW. An arch of the horizon, comprehending about four points of the compass on each side of that point to which the ship’s head is directed. Thus, they say, the ship in sight bears three points on the starboard-bow; that is, three points, towards the right-hand, from that part of the horizon which is right a-head. ON THE QUARTER. An arch of the horizon, comprehending about four points of the compass on each side of that point to which the ship’s stern is directed. See ON THE BOW. OPEN. The situation of a place exposed to the wind and sea. It is also expressed of any distant object to which the sight or passage is not intercepted. OPEN HAWSE. When a ship at her moorings has her cables lead strait to her anchors, without crossing, she is said to ride with an open hawse. OVER-BOARD. Out of the ship. OVER-GROWN SEA is expressed of the ocean when the surges and billows rise extremely high. To OVER-HAUL. To open and extend the several parts of a tackle, or other assemblage of ropes, thereby fitting them the better for running easily. OVER-RAKE. When a ship at anchor is exposed to a head-sea, the waves of which break in upon her, the waves are laid to over-rake her. OVER-SET. A ship is OVER-SET, when her keel turns upwards. OUT-OF-TRIM. The state of a ship, when she is not properly balanced for the purposes of navigation. PARLIAMENT-HEEL. The situation of a ship when she is made to stoop a little to one side, so as to clean the upper part of her bottom on the other side. See boot-topping. PARTING. Being driven from the anchors, by the breaking of the cable. To PAWL the capstern. To fix the pawls, so as to prevent the capstern from recoiling, during any pause of heaving. To PAY. To daub or cover the surface of any body, in order to preserve it from the injuries of the weather, &c. |
To PAY AWAY or PAY OUT. To slacken a cable or other rope, so as to let it run out for some particular purpose. To PAY OFF. To move a ship’s head to leeward. To PEEK the mizen. To put the mizen-yard perpendicular by the mast. PITCHING. The movement of a ship, by which she plunges her head and after-part alternately into the hollow of the sea. To PLY to windward. To endeavour to make a progress against the direction of the wind. See beating to windward. POINT-BLANK. The direction of a gun when levelled horizontally. POOPING. The shock of a high and heavy sea upon the stern or quarter of a ship, when she scuds before the wind in a tempest. PORT. A name given on some occasions to the larboard side of the ship as, the ship heels to port, top the yards to port, &c. PORT THE HELM. The order to put the helm over to the larboard side. PORT-LAST. The gunwale. PORTOISE. The same as port-last; to ride a portoise is to ride with a yard struck down to the deck. PRESS OF SAIL. All the sail a ship can set or carry. PRIZING. The application of a lever to move any weighty body. PURCHASE. Any sort of mechanical power employed in raising or removing heavy bodies. QUARTERS. The several stations of a ship’s crew in time of action. QUARTERING. When a ship under sail has the wind blowing on her quarter. To RAISE. To elevate any distant object at sea by approaching it; thus, to raise the land is used in opposition to lay the land. To RAKE. To cannonade a ship at the stern or head, so that the balls scour the whole length of the decks. RANGE. A sufficient length of cable drawn upon deck before the anchor is cast loose, to admit of its sinking to the bottom, without any check. REACH. The distance between any two points on the banks of a river, wherein the current flows in an uninterrupted course. READY ABOUT! A command of the boatswain to the crew, and implies that all the hands are to be attentive, and at their stations for tacking. REAR. The last division of a squadron, or the last squadron of a fleet. It is applied likewise to the last ship of a line, squadron, or division. REEF. Part of a sail from one row of eyelet-holes to another. It is applied likewise to a chain of rocks lying near the surface of the water. REEFING. The operation of reducing a sail, by taking in one or more of the reefs. To REEVE. To pass the end of a rope through any hole, as the channel of a block, the cavity of a thimble, &c. RENDERING. The giving way or yielding to the efforts of some mechanical power. It is used in opposition to jambing or sticking. RIDING, when expressed of a ship, is the state of being retained in a particular station, by an anchor and cable: thus she is said to ride easy or to ride hard, in proportion to the strain upon her cable. She is likewise said to ride leeward tide, if anchored in a place at a time when the tide sets to leeward; and to ride windward tide, if the tide sets to windward: to ride between |
wind and tide, when the wind and tide are in direct opposition, causing her to ride without any strain upon her cables. RIGHTING. Restoring a ship to an upright position, either after she has been laid on a careen, or after she has been pressed down on her side by the wind. To RIGHT the helm is to bring it into midships, after it has been pushed either to starboard or larboard. RIGGING OUT a boom. The running out a pole at the end of a yard, to extend the foot of a sail. To RIG the capstern. To fix the bars in their respective holes. ROLLING. The motion by which a ship rocks from side to side like a cradle. ROUGH-TREE. A name applied to any mast, yard, or boom, placed in merchant ships, as a rail or fence above the vessel’s side, from the quarter-deck to the forecastle. ROUNDING-IN. The pulling upon any rope which passes through one or more blocks in a direction nearly horizontal; as, round-in the weather braces. ROUND-TURN. The situation of the two cables of a ship when moored, after they have been several times crossed by the swinging of the ship. ROUNDING-UP. Similar to rounding-in, except that it is applied to ropes and blocks which act in a perpendicular direction. To ROW. To move a boat with oars. ROWSING. Pulling upon a cable or rope, without the assistance of tackles. To RUN OUT a warp. To carry the end of a rope out from a ship, in a boat, and fastening it to some distant object; so that by it the ship may be removed by pulling on it. To SAG to leeward. To make considerable lee-way. SAILING-TRIM is expressed of a ship when in the best state for sailing. SCANTING. The variation of the wind, by which it becomes unfavourable to a ship’s making great progress, as it deviates from being large, and obliges the vessel to steer close-hauled or nearly so. SCUDDING. The movement by which a ship is carried precipitately before the wind in a tempest. SCUTTLING. Cutting large holes through the bottom or sides of a ship, either to sink her, or to unlade her expeditiously when stranded. SEA. A large wave is so called; thus they say, a heavy sea. It implies, likewise, the agitation of the ocean, as, a great sea. It expresses the direction of the waves, as, a head-sea. A long sea means an uniform and steady motion of long and extensive waves; a short sea, on the contrary, is when they run irregularly, broken and interrupted. SEA-BOAT. A vessel that bears the sea firmly, without straining her masts, &c. SEA-CLOTHS. Jackets, trowsers, &c. SEA-MARK. A point or object on shore conspicuously seen at sea. SEA-ROOM. A sufficient distance from the coast or any dangerous rocks, &c. so that a ship may drive or send, without danger of shipwreck. SENDING. The act of pitching precipitately into the hollow between two waves. SETTING. The act of observing the situation of any distant object by the compass. To SET sail. To unfurl and expand the sails to the wind, in order to give motion to the ship. To SET up. To increase the tension of the shrouds, backstays, &c. by tackles, laniards, &c. To SETTLE the land. To lower in appearance. It is synonymous with to lay the land. |
To SHAPE A COURSE. To direct or appoint the track of a ship, in order to prosecute a voyage. SHEERING. The act of deviating from the line of the course, either to the right or left. To SHEER off. To remove to a greater distance. To SHEET-HOME. To haul the sheets of a sail home to the block on the yard-arm. To SHIFT the helm. To alter its position from right to left, or from left to right. To SHIP, To take any person, goods, or thing on-board. It also implies to fix any thing in its proper place; as, to ship the oars, to fix them in their rowlocks. SHIVERING. The state of a sail, when fluttering in the wind. SHOAL. Shallow. To SHOE the anchor. To cover the flukes with a piece of plank, to give it firmer hold in soft ground. To SHOOT a-head. To advance forward. SHORE. A general name for the sea coast of any country. To SHORTEN sail. Used in opposition to make sail. SLACK-WATER. The interval between the flux and reflux of the tide, when no motion is perceptible in the water. SLATCH is applied to the period of a transitory breeze. To SLIP the cable. To let it run quite out, when there is not time to weigh the anchor. To SLUE. To turn any cylindrical piece of timber about its axis, without removing it. Thus, to slue a mast or BOOM is to turn it in its cap or boom-iron. SOUNDING. Trying the depth of the water with a plummet, sunk from a ship to the bottom. To SPELL the mizen. To let go the sheet, and peek it up. To SPILL. To discharge the wind out of the cavity or belly of a sail, when it is drawn up in the brails, in order to furl or reef it. SPLIT. The state of a sail rent by the violence of the wind. SPOON-DRIFT. A sort of showery sprinkling of the sea-water, swept from the surface of the waves in a tempest, and flying like a vapour before the wind. SPRAY. The sprinkling of the sea, driven occasionally from the top of a wave, and not continual as spoon-drift. To SPRING a mast, yard, &c. To crack a mast, yard, &c. by means of straining in blowing weather, so that it is rendered unsafe for use. To SPRING A LEAK. When a leak first commences, a ship is said to SPRING A LEAK. To SPRING the luff. A ship is said to spring her luff, when she yields to the effort of the helm, by sailing nearer to the wind than before. SQUALL. A sudden violent blast of wind. SQUARE. This term is applied to yards that are very long; as taunt is to high masts. To SQUARE THE YARDS. To brace the yards, so as to hang at right angles with the keel. To STAND ON. To continue advancing. To STAND IN. To advance towards the shore. To STAND OFF. To recede from the shore. STARBOARD. The right-hand side of the ship, when looking forward. STARBOARD-TACK. A ship is said to be on the starboard-tack, when sailing with the wind blowing upon her starboard-side. STARBOARD the helm! An order to push the helm to the starboard-side. |
To STAY a ship. To arrange the sails, and move the rudder, so as to bring the ship’s head to the direction of the wind, in order to get her on the other tack. STEADY! The order to the helmsman, to keep the ship in the direction she is going at that instant. STEERING. The art of directing the ship’s way by the movement of the helm. STEERAGE-WAY. Such degree of progressive motion of a ship, as will give effect to the motions of the helm. To STEM the tide. When a ship is sailing again the tide at such a rate as enables her to overcome its power, she is laid to stem the tide. STERNFAST. A rope confining a ship by her stem to any other ship or wharf. STERNMOST. The furthest a-stern, opposed to HEADMOST. STERNWAY. The motion by which a ship falls back with her stern foremost. STIFF. The condition of a ship when she will carry a great quantity of sail without hazard of oversetting. To STOW. To arrange and dispose a ship’s cargo. To STREAM the buoy. To let it fall from the ship’s side into the water. To STRIKE. To lower or let down any thing. Used emphatically to denote the lowering of colours in token of surrender to a victorious enemy. To STRIKE sounding. To touch ground, when endeavouring to find the depth of water. SURF. The swell of the sea that breaks upon shore or on any rock. To SURGE the capstern. To slacken the rope heaved round upon it. SWELL. The fluctuating motion of the sea either during or after a storm. SWEEPING. The act of dragging the bight or loose part of a rope along the surface of the ground, in a harbour or road, in order to drag up something lost. SWINGING. The act of a ship’s turning round her anchor at the change of wind or tide. To TACK. To turn a ship about from one tack to the other. TAKING-IN. The act of furling the sails. Used in opposition to SETTING. TAKEN A-BACK. See a-back. TAUGHT. Improperly though very generally used for tight. TAUNT. High or tall. Particularly applied to mast of extraordinary length. TENDING. The turning or swinging of a ship round her anchor in a tide-way, at the beginning of ebb and flood. THWART. See a-thwart. THWART SHIPS. See a-thwart-ships. THUS! An order to the helmsman to keep the ship in her present situation, when sailing with a scant wind. TIDE-WAY. That part of river in which the tide ebbs and flows strongly. TIER. One range of any thing placed horizontally. TOPPING. Pulling one of the ends of a yard higher than the other. To TOW. To draw a ship in the water, by a rope fixed to a boat or other ship, which is rowing or sailing on. TRIM. The state or disposition by which a ship is best calculated for the purposes of navigation. To TRIM the hold. To arrange the cargo regularly. |
To TRIM the sails. To dispose the sails in the best arrangement for the course which a ship is steering. To TRIP THE ANCHOR. To loosen the anchor from the ground, either by design or accident. TROUGH of the sea. The hollow between two waves. TRYING. The situation in which a ship, in a tempest, lies-to in the trough or hollow of the sea, particularly when the wind blows contrary to her course. TURNING TO WINDWARD. That operation in sailing, whereby a ship endeavours to advance against the wind. VAN. The foremost division of a fleet in one line. It is likewise applied to the foremost ship of a division. To VEER. To change a ship’s course, from one tack to the other, by turning her stern to windward. The wind is said to veer when it changes more aft. To VEER and haul. To pull a rope tight, by alternately drawing it in and slackening it. To UNBALLAST. To discharge the ballast out of a ship. To UNBEND. To take the sails off from their yards and stays. To cast loose the anchor from the cable. To untye two ropes. To UNBIT. To remove the turns of a cable from off the bits. UNDER FOOT. Is expressed of an anchor that is directly under the ship. UNDER SAIL. When a ship is loosened from moorings, and is under the government of her sails and rudder. UNDER-WAY. The same as under-sail. UNDER THE LEE of the shore is to be close under the shore which lies to windward of the ship. To UNMOOR. To reduce a ship to the state of riding at single anchor, after she has been moored. To UNREEVE. To draw a rope from out of a block, thimble, &c. To UNRIG. To deprive a ship of her rigging. WAKE. The print or track impressed upon the surface of the water by a ship in her course, A ship is said to be in the wake of another, when she follows her in the same track, or on a line supposed to be formed on a continuation of her keel. To WARE. See to veer. WARP. A small rope employed occasionally to remove a ship from one place to another. To WARP. To remove a ship by means of a warp. WATER-BORNE. The state of a ship, when there is barely a sufficient depth of water to float her off from the ground. WATER-LOGGED. The state of a ship, become heavy and inactive on the sea, from the great quantity of water leaked into her. WATER-TIGHT. The state of a ship, when not leaky. WEATHER. Synonymous with windward. WEATHER-BEATEN. Shattered by a storm. WEATHER-BIT. A turn of the cable about the end of the windlass. WEATHER-GAGE. When a ship or fleet is to windward of another she is said to have the weather-gage Of her. WEATHER-QUARTER. That quarter of the ship which is on the windward side. |
WEATHER-SIDE. The side upon which the wind blows. To WEIGH ANCHOR. To heave up an anchor from the bottom. To WIND A SHIP. To change her position, bringing her head where her stern was. WIND-ROAD. When a ship is at anchor, and the wind, being against the tide, is so strong as to overcome its power and keep the ship to leeward of her anchor, he is said to be wind-road. WIND’s-EYE. The point from which the wind blows. To WINDWARD. Towards that part of the horizon from which the wind blows. WINDWARD-TIDE. A tide that sets to windward. To WORK a ship. To direct the movements of a ship, by adapting the sails and managing the rudder according to the course the ship has to make. To WORK TO WINDWARD. To make a progress against the direction of the wind. YAWING. The motion of a ship, when she deviates from her course to the right or left. 
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Theory of Working Ships - Plate 1.
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THE THEORY OF WORKING SHIPS.
THE theory of working ships is nothing but the demonstration, supported with proofs, of the effects of every sail, and of the rudder, separately or all together considered, both with respect to the points where these machines are placed in the ship, and with respect to the different dispositions which either are given them in the changes of evolutions, or which arise from their various obliquities, when they present, more or less obliquely, their surfaces to the course of the water or the wind. LEMMA.
i. if a body strikes a surface, it communicates to it all its perpendicular motion.
DEMONSTRATION.
If the body c, (fig. 1.) meets the surface A B, with a motion perpendicular to its middle, or center of gravity D, it will do it with the strength of all its perpendicular motion, which is the produce of its weight by its velocity; and will force it in the direction D G, perpendicular to A B. If the same body meets the same surface obliquely, and with the same velocity, it will impel it in the direction D G, with the velocity only of D E, which is equal to the angle of incidence H F. For, H F expresses the perpendicular velocity of the body H, towards the surface: and this is evident, if we consider that the movement H D, is composed of the two movements H F, and H E; and that there is no other movement, but H F only, which can meet the surface A B, since the other H E, is parallel to it. But the part H F, of the motion of the body H, is perpendicular to the surface A B: whence it follows, that the body H impels, in the like perpendicular manner, that surface in the direction D G, with a force equal to the product of its weight by the velocity H F. |
CHAPTER I.
of the action which water or wind have, by their pressure, on surfaces.
2. FLUIDS are formed of an infinite number of particles, the minuteness of which is the cause why they communicate, by their shock, but very imperceptible degrees of motion, in the first instant of their action: and such is the weakness of their action, that it requires to be repeated a great many times before they can produce any sensible effect on the bodies they are to move. It is easy to conceive, that the more specific gravity a body is possessed of, the stronger its impulse must be: therefore water, which weighs nearly eight hundred and fifty times more than air, ought to produce (the velocity being the same) an impulsion eight hundred and fifty times more than air would against a surface of the same size; moved in directions perfectly similar. And when it is known that the impulse of a fluid depends on its specific gravity, it will be easily understood that such an impulse must depend also on the extent of the surface which is struck. For, it is plain that the greater the surface is (the gravity, the velocity, and the direction of the fluid being the same), the stronger the impulse will be, admitting still the same proportion to be kept between the extent of that fluid’s surface and that of any other surface put in comparison with it; because a surface of twelve feet square will always receive twelve times as much impulsion as would a surface of only one foot square. We must observe here, at the same time, that such parts of the fluid as strike, find more or less difficulty to recoil after the shock, according as the surface is more or less extensive; because, the greater the surface struck, the longer is the continuance of repulsion from their former directions impressed on the particles, which, by that very act of repulsion, receive a new direction, by which they are made to lose for a while the first movement they had during their primitive ones; whence it follows, that the shock of the subsequent particles must be altered; but this deviation, from the direct line, of the subsequent particles may be looked upon as almost nothing; since there is very little wanting, indeed, but all impulsions should be in the reciprocal proportions which exist between them and the surfaces on which they strike; allowing always all other circumstances to be alike. 3. It must be observed, that the rapidity of the fluid contributes doubly to the force of the impulse; for every particle strikes with so much the more strength as it acts with a greater velocity, and is at the same time followed by a greater number of new particles to shock the surface. So that the greater the celerity of the particles, the greater is the number of those which share the action, and the more powerful is the resistance they oppose to their being put out of their direct motion. But, if the fluid is possessed of five or six times more rapidity, it is evident that every particle enjoys like-wise five or six times more force to shock the surface which opposes the passage of them all together; as, on the side of the surface, there are five or six times as many particles to encounter in the same space of time: therefore such a surface, thus exposed to the shock of the fluid, will be struck with twenty-five or thirty-six times more force at one time than at another, since there are five or six times as many particles employed in the act of striking, and supported with five or six times as much |
rapidity. Whence it may be concluded, that impulsions increase as the squares of velocities; or, rather that they are between themselves as the squares of their velocities, when all other circumstances are the same. OBSERVATIONS.
When a surface is exposed to the course of a fluid, it is indifferent whether we consider that the fluid shocks the surface, or that the surface moves the fluid: or, again, whether we consider the fluid and the surface as having each their respective share of the velocity with which that surface receives the impulse of the fluid. 4. When the wind has little velocity, its action is observed to be but faint; but, when moving with rapidity, then it becomes capable of producing the greatest effects. This is easy to be conceived; for, if to the action of every particle of air, which is stronger by reason of its increased celerity, be added a greater number of particles striking at the same time, it is evident that its force will increase as the square of its velocity; which has already been demonstrated. The same may be said of water, the impulse of which is almost like that of a solid when it acts, or is acted upon, with a great rapidity of motion. Whence we must conclude, that if that water meets perpendicularly a body which presents to it a great superficies, such a body must have the greatest solidity to be able to resist it. 5. Experience confirms this principle. For, a ship which drives to leeward does not divide the fluid with her side in a direct line; there is always some obliquity in the direction she pursues by her act of dividing. This obliquity proceeds from the little resistance she experiences from the fluid either at her stem or at her stern. So that, should she be driven ever so little to leeward, she glides always obliquely on the column of water which opposes her under her lee, in following a line more or less close to the direction of her length, than to the perpendicular which may be conceived to be draw, as lateral to her keel. 6. We have hitherto spoken of the impulse of fluids upon surfaces only, when considered as perpendicular: but, when that impulse becomes oblique, it is clear, that it must receive a great deal of diminution; since the motion of every particle will be discomposed on account of its acting only by its motion perpendicular to the surface, as has been demonstrated (fig. 1.), where the body H may be considered as a particle of a fluid, the impulse of which is proportionably less as the sine of the angle of incidence H D F, is diminished: therefore, in this case, when we consider the particle H, as a body, its impulse will be in the proportion of the different angles of incidence, which always express the respective velocities, these being considered in a direction perpendicular to the surface. 7. If, instead of one particle, we consider the whole surface as exposed to the course of all those which compose a fluid; it will appear evident, from what has been said, that the surface E F, (fig. 2.) which is oblique to the course of the fluid, presents to that fluid, a less surface than it would if it were perpendicular to it, like A B. So that each particle produces a less shock, and the particles which are at the same time contributing to the shock, are less in number. Now, as these two causes of diminution follow the same proportion, it results, that the impulsions of fluids are between themselves as the squares of the lines of incidence. Therefore, as soon as the impulse of a fluid, which strikes a surface perpendicularly, is known; that impulse, when it strikes the surface obliquely, is only to be diminished in the same proportion as the sine total I K, is to the square of the sine of incidence L K. |
The surface A B (fig. 2.) receives all the direct impulse of the fluid which strikes it perpendicularly, and which is contained between C D: but, the same surface, presented obliquely to the fluid in the direction E F, will receive but a part of the impulse, which will be proportional to the sine of incidence compared with the sine total I K, of the direct effort of every particle contained between the parallels E G, and F H, which inclose a much less space than the first, A C, and B D. Whence it is easy to conclude, that the diminution of the impulse of the fluid has diminished on two sides, and has consequently followed the proportion of the square of the sine total I K, to the square of the sine of incidence L K; for, there is a less number of particles employed in striking the surface, and with a smaller degree of velocity. 8. It follows, that we ought not to be surprised to see the velocity of a ship diminishing considerably when, after having run with the wind aft or large, the vessel is hauled closer to the wind. For, it is evident that all the sails which can possibly be spread in this last direction will receive but very little impulse, on account of their great obliquity to the wind, with which they cannot make an angle more open than 30 degrees, and sometimes much less, as will be demonstrated hereafter. So that the impulse has diminished, in proportion as the square of the sine total is to the sine of incidence of 30 degrees; that is is to say, as 4 to 1. Therefore, the sails, receiving but a very faint impulse, can communicate to the ship but a small motion; and that motion is full enfeebled by the resistance of the water on the lee-bow; which resistance increases, on one hand, by the inclination of the ship, and, on the other, by the greater surface which she presents to the water in the direction of her length; to which must be added, the decomposition of the absolute effort of the sails, the lateral part of which is now become much greater than the direct. Hence we find the rapidity of the ship’s way is already diminished from three evident causes; to which another may still be added; and it is this: if the ship has an inclination to the horizon (as this always happens in oblique courses, and as we have already hinted,) and if the wind has ever so little force, there will result again, from that circumstance, a cause of diminution of impulse of the wind on the sails; because, in such a case, the sails follow that particular inclination of the ship called heeling: and this diminution of impulse will follow this particular proportion, viz. that in such a direction the square of the sine of incidence will be smaller than that of the sine total. Therefore, we see that the absolute sine of incidence diminishes in a twofold proportion, and receives that diminution from the compound ratio of the proportion which the sine total bears to the two sines of the obliquity of the yard with the wind, and of the inclination of the sail with the wind. 9. The impulse of the wind being continual, must necessarily communicate to the ship, degrees of velocity which, from instant to instant, are increasing, until there happens to be an equilibrium between the impulse of the wind on the sails and the resistance of the water on the bows, observing, that, in the courses where the ship sails with the wind abaft the beam, the first moment when the wind strikes the sails is the time when its impulse is greatest, and the resistance of the water the weakest; because, at that instant, the ship does not yet move in the fluid, not having yielded to the power of the wind: but, in a few moments, the velocity of the ship increasing, the resistance of the water on the bows increases also considerably: then the impulse of the wind on the sails is proportionably decreasing; because the ship receding, as it were, from the wind, must of course lessen its power on the sails. Thus the accelerating force is incessantly lessening from two causes; first, from the wind striking the sails with less force; and, second, from the greater part of its impulse being destroyed by the resistance of the water on the bows: a resistance which increases in proportion as the ship’s way accelerates; for this opposition of the water is as a deduction from the effort of the wind; |
since, by its resistance, the water renders part of that effort ineffectual. Therefore, the rate of sailing will be the greatest possible when the impulse of the wind upon the sails shall be so diminished, and the resistance of the water on the bows so increased, as that the two forces acting in contrary directions are in a perfect equilibrium. Hence we must conclude, that the vessel will now enjoy a constant and uniform motion; for, the ship advances as if she were not subject to the action of any exterior force, the wind no longer having power to increase her velocity, because the resistance of the water on her bows prevents it; and, on the other hand, the impulse of the wind hinders the water, by its resistance, from retarding her course. 10. If a ship runs on a line perpendicular to the direction of the wind, the impulse on the sails is always the same, because she does not recede from the point from which the wind blows: but, when she sails close hauled, the impulse must be stronger; because she runs to windward, and draws nearer to that point. So that if the rate of the ship’s sailing be great, the apparent angle of incidence diminishes in proportion to the two velocities, viz. that of the wind, and that of the ship. The moment a surface which is suspended, or afloat, is struck by a fluid, that is the time of the greatest impulsion (if it were not in motion before,) and of the greatest resistance of the surface. CHAPTER II.
of the center of gravity.
11. EVERY solid has a center of gravity; that is to say, a point on which, it being suspended, it will have a perfect equilibrium; and on that point all the gravity of the body is united. Such, for example, is the rectangular parallelepipedon A B, (fig. 3.) the center of gravity of which is exactly in the middle of the solid, G; so that, if it be suspended from that point, as from G, to D, it will always be in equilibrium; because that solid being considered as regular, one of its halves must exactly balance the other; and were it not regular, the finding of this center would be much more complicated. Without engaging, therefore, in abstract difficulties, it will be sufficient, for our purpose, to make it appear that the center of gravity of a body heavier at one extremity than at the other, lies always in the heaviest part, with respect to the point which marks the middle of the length of the body. If to the solid A B, which is suspended in a perfect equilibrium by its center of gravity G, be added a weight E, in the center of the part A G, the equilibrium will then be lost, as it will increase the weight of this part, which will then overweigh the other half B G, by all the weight E, of which the part B G, becomes by so much lighter. To find, then, the centre of gravity, which is changed from G, to I, we must divide reciprocally to the weight of the two bodies, A G + E for the one, and B G, for the other, the interval F H; for it may be supposed that this half A G, of the parallelepipedon plus the weight E, is a body suspended by the center F, of the part A G; and that this point is the extremity of a lever H is, infinitely light, which bears also, at the other extremity H, taken for the center of the other part B G, all the weight of that part: so that, if the body A G + E, weighs four times as much as the other weight B G, we have but to make the interval F I, the fourth part of the other I H and the point I, will then be the center of gravity required of the solid A B + E, and the two bodies suspended by that point will be in perfect equilibrium; for the weight A G E, + is four times as heavy as the other B G; but it acts with an arm of a lever |
F I which is only the fourth part of the other I H; therefore the two weights suspended by the point I, will preserve a perfect equilibrium, in whatever situation they may be placed, as they make, in fact, both but one, the heaviness of which may be supposed united in the single point I.12 It follows, from what has been demonstrated, that a long lever is productive of a greater effect than a short one, when both are actuated by the same force; whence we must conclude, that the longest lever, or the greatest distance from the fulcrum or point of support, is proportional to the greatest weight.It is very easy to be convinced of this truth, if we make one of the two following proportions: first, thus; the sum of the two weights AG + E + BG : FH :: B G : F I; or : : A G + E : I H.We have supposed that the weight A G + E (fig. 3. ) weighs four times as much as the other B G, which I suppose to be two pounds; so that the sum total will be ten pounds. Then say: Ten, the sum of the two weights, is to the whole lever F H, as two pounds is to the less part, F I, of the lever divided into five equal parts: so that, if F I, is equal to two feet, I H, will be equal to eight feet, and F H, equal to ten feet. But we have also this proportion to make; viz. Ten pounds, the sum of the two weights, is to ten feet, the whole length of the lever, as eight pounds are to eight feet; but, admitting the distance F H, to be ten feet, the distance F I is found to be two feet, and that of H I eight feet; which demonstrates, that a power of two pounds on a lever of eight feet, is equal to a power of eight pounds on a lever of two feet; for the product of the extremes, in both the one and the other proportions, is equal to that of their means. It ought also to be observed, that the center of gravity of a solid follows always the greatest weight with respect to the middle G, (fig. 3.) since the point I, four times as near the center F, of the heaviest body as it is to the center is, of the lightest body. 13. It follows, that the center of gravity A, of a ship (fig. 4.) is always before the point C which is the middle of her absolute length; for, the fore part B C having more capacity than the after part C D, must of course have also more weight: therefore, it carries the center of gravity C, forward, in proportion to its greater weight (which in large ships is from fifty to eighty tons,) and to the interval there is between every center of gravity of each particular part, both forward and aft. 14. When a ship is at sea, and loaded, the center of gravity may well be supposed not to change, unless the cargo be moved. But it must be observed, that, as experience shows it, the fore or after part of the bottom of a ship plunges and labours more and more, in proportion as the wind acts with more or less force on the sails; because ships are generally not masted according to the point velique: * so that a ship which has the center of the effort of her sails ill-placed, draws always more water forward, or aft, when the impulse of the wind upon her sails is very powerful, than when she is at ease under her burthen.
* From the center of gravity of the floating line of a ship let a perpendicular be raised, and continued till intersected by the direction of the impulse of the water on the bows, in sailing directly before the wind; and where these two lines cut each other, there is the point velique, and where the center of effort of all the sails should be placed. |
THEOREM.
15. The center of rotation, or the point on which a body turns freely, is always on the other side of the center of gravity of that body, with respect to the point on which the moving force acts. DEMONSTRATION.
IF the body B D, (fig. 5.) be struck in its center of gravity G, when it is perfectly at rest, it is evident (§ I.) that the two extremities, B and D, will advance equally on parallels: but, if it is struck in the point F, distant from the center of gravity, by any mobile such as A, when the body is subject to no friction, it will then have two motions with respect to its center of gravity G, on which are collected all the weight and the resistance. For, that center, not being held by any thing, is moved in the direction G g, parallel to the direction A I, of the effort of the mobile A, which strikes the body B D, in the point F. So that the part B G, of that body receives the shock of the mobile A, which makes it pass from F to f, according to the direction of its motion A I. And as the other part, G D of the same body shares that motion only in proportion as its parts are less distant from the point of percussion, F, (since the nearest parts of that point receive the greater share of the action,) in proportion as they remove from their first situation, they all describe, by the first effect of the shock, parallels B b, G g, and D d, to the direction A I, of the effort of the mobile A. These parallels are greater as they are more distant from the part shocked, and from its extremity B; because the resistance which the body B D makes against receiving the motion, cannot be in equilibrium with that which the power A, makes to lose part of its own motion, but as much as the two resistances are equal and directly contrary: therefore, the body B D, yielding to the impulse of the moible A, does not oppose to it a resistance, equal to its shock; it must then change its place and situation, in turning on the point R, marked by the meeting of two lines D R, and d R, drawn from the center of gravity of the body B D, in those two situations, before and after the shock; and as the circular motion of the body B D, is made always round the center of gravity, it is easy to conceive that the center, having taken the velocity G g, must continue to move equally in the same right line prolonged; and that the body having begun to turn, it must continue to do the same round its center of gravity, and at the same time, be carried in the direction A I, on the parallels B E, and D H as long as the force which puts it in motion exists. But, it must be remarked that, in proportion as it shall remove from its first situation B D, it will lose all the relations it had, in the principle of motion, with the point R; that is to say, that the point G, being transported to g, in the first instant of the shock, it will continue in the second and the following instants to be thus transported on the same line and in the same direction: therefore, the point of rotation R, will change in proportion as the body B D, removes from the second situation b d to take another E H; for the line H K, will cut D R, in a point K, nearer the point from which the body was moved; and although the point of rotation R, be continually changing during the time of motion, it remains always on the other side of the center of gravity, with respect to the point of percussion, till at last the body B D, be so much turned, that the effort A I, may pass through the center of gravity G, in the direction D B; then the body D B, will cease to turn round a point situated on the part G D, prolonged, and will turn successively on different points of the part G B, which will then have passed to the opposite side. |
REMARKS.
16. IF the force of the mobile A, (fig. 5.) employed to turn the body B D, be greater or less, the velocity G g, of the center of gravity will be likewise increased or diminished in proportion as the mobile than act with more or less power. Consequently, when the body B D, changes its situation, the angle it will make with its first position will be proportional to the motion G g, or to the force employed in the shock, hence they are correspondent to one another. Therefore, all other circumstances being the same, the rapidity of the circular motion will be always in proportion to the force employed to produce it. 17. A method of increasing the rapidity of motion, and the angle of rotation, is to make the power A, (fig. 5.) act on a point more distant from the center of gravity G, than the given point F; for, it is clear, that if the distance G F be two or three times augmented, the other distance G R, from the center of gravity to the point of rotation, will become two or three times less; and the sides of the angle G R g, becoming consequently shorter, it follows, that the angle will be more open in the same proportion. Therefore, it is demonstrated that there are two sure methods of augmenting both the angle and motion of rotation of a body: the first consists of employing more force in the percussion, in order that the angle G R g should be as much increased as is the side G g, which subtends it. The second is, to apply that force at a greater distance from the center of gravity of the body you wish to turn: for, in augmenting F G, G R is diminished; and the more the sides which form an angle are shortened (the side which subtends it still remaining the same), the more the angle is augmented. So that the angle of rotation is in a compound proportion both to the force employed, and to the distance of that force from the center of gravity: this angle is then, as the produce of that force multiplied by F G. Although the body be perfectly free, and take a direct motion G g, we must consider its center of gravity G, as the point of support, or F G as the arm of a lever; and the angle of rotation B R b is always proportional to the absolute force*, employed in the percussion. 18. Let us consider the body B D, (fig. 5.) exposed to the action of several forces at the same time, and it will appear that the angle of rotation will be proportional to the sum or difference of the absolute forces, according as they tend to turn the body B D, in the same or in contrary directions. If the acting forces directly counteract each other, it is plain that their absolute effect, with respect to the center of gravity G, must be sought, and then deduct the excess of one from the other: then the angle of rotation will be proportional to that excess; instead of which, it will be proportional to the sum of the forces employed, if they act in concert, and in the same manner, to augment it. But if you take no notice of the angle of rotation, and wish to consider the center of gravity only as being transported from G to g, it is not necessary to find the sum of the absolute forces of the acting powers; but only to consider the forces in themselves, and then G g, will be found proportional to either their sum or their difference, according as they contribute to produce the same effects, or as they are opposite in their efforts. Suppose these forces equal between themselves, but acting in contrary directions on the extremities A and B, (fig. 6.) of the body A B, and on arms of equal levers. Then it is evident that the angle of rotation is double what it would be, if the body were struck by only one of these forces, and turned on its center of gravity: since the two parts, separated by the center, are struck
* By the term absolute force, we understand the force employed to turn the body, multiplied by the distance F G, from the center of gravity. |
equally, and at the same time, by forces which act perpendicularly in contrary directions. To prove this, observe that the equal powers, S and T, at the same time on the body A B, with equal levers, G K and G F: so that the extremity B passes to C. at the same time that A passes to D; and thereby the center of gravity, G, remains as if it were fixed in the same point which serves as a center of rotation; for, if one of the acting forces removes it from its first situation, the other, in opposing an equal force, will replace it. If the power T exceeds the other S, it is evident that the center of gravity G, will be transported towards g, in proportion as the force T exceeds the other S; then the body A B could turn no longer on the center of gravity G, (§ Ts.); but on another point E, which would be on the other side of the center of gravity G, with respect to the point of percussion. If the body A B, (fig. 6.) were struck at the two points, K and F, by two mobiles, S and I, exerting equal powers, with respect to the center of gravity G; it is plain that the whole body A B will be carried up on parallels, such as I T and S H, and that the sum of the two powers will act on the center of gravity G, since they are equal in every respect. THEOREM.
19. a sail acts always two ways on a ship, when it is not perpendicular to her length.
DEMONSTRATION.
We have only to consider the sail A B, (fig. 7.) oblique to the ship and to the wind, and we must be convinced (§ 1, 7.) that it is impelled in the direction C D, with a force expressed by the square of the sine of incidence of the wind upon the sail. Therefore, what we are going to say here for the present case is to be understood as applicable in all others, in which the sail shall not be perpendicular to the length of the ship; for, then, she would go only in the direction of her length from C to E, or from C to F, according as the sail might be full or a-back. If C D be equal to the impulse of the wind upon the sail, as expressed by the square of the sign of incidence A V we have only to form the right-angled parallelogram G H, to be convinced that such a direction is composed of the two effects C H and C G, which it produces with respect to the body E F, upon which it acts in impelling it in the direction C D. REMARK.
The more the yard A B (fig. 7.) shall make the angle A C E acute, the more the effect C H will augment, and the other C G diminish; for, the more the angle A C E becomes acute, the more its equal D C H or C D G (§ 22) will be acute also; so that C D, which is perpendicular to the center of the yard, will approach more to C H, the other perpendicular to the length of the ship E F; which cannot happen without increasing the ship’s tendency to fall off in the direction C H, and increasing likewise the cause C D, which follows in that increase the same proportion as the square of the sine of incidence augments (§ 1, 6, 7.). But this increase of the impulse C D is not sufficient to preserve the effect of the sail in the direction of the keel C G. On the contrary, it diminishes in the proportion of the decrease of the sine A C E or C D G; whence it follows, that you never can augment the impulse of the |
wind by shifting the situation of the sail, when it is properly trimmed, without lessening the rate of sailing (§ 28.), when neither the ship changes her course, nor the wind shifts. 20. It might, in the same manner, be demonstrated, that the more open the angle A C E of the sail A B is with the keel, the more its effect C G, in the direction of the ship’s length, will increase in the same proportion as the increase of the sine of that angle, when the impulse of the wind upon the sail is the same; for, the sines of the angles are in proportion to their opposite sides in the triangle C D G, of which the angle C D G is equal to the angle A C E. If the impulse augment also (§ 3.), the two effects, C G and C H it, will augment proportionally. 21. If the sail A B receive the impulse of the wind E on its forward surface, it would still act in two ways on the ship, by forcing her first a-stern in the direction C F, and then to leeward in the direction H C: to be convinced of this, reverse the parallelogram, by tracing it on the after part of the yard towards F, and use the same reasoning. THEOREM.
22. the angle a c f (fig. 8.) formed by the yard a b, and the keel f c of the ship, is equal to the angle d c e comprehended between the perpendiculars d c to the yard and e c to the keel, in the like manner as the angle c d g.
DEMONSTRATION.
The angle A C D is right, since C D is perpendicular on A B: the other angle F C E is right also; for C H is perpendicular on F I; therefore the arc A D is equal to the arc F H; and if, from these two equal arcs, be taken away the common one F D, the remainders A F and H D will be equal: because, when equals are taken from equals, the remainders must be equal. Secondly, the angle C D G in the parallelogram G E is alternate to the angle D C E: therefore it is equal to it; therefore it is also equal to A C F. 23. It follows, that the angle B C H is equal to the other angle D C F; for, if from the two equal arcs A D and B D, be taken the other equal arcs F A and D H, the remainders F D and H B will be equal also. REMARK.
24. The few principles of Geometry here given, and which will be found of great service in the sequel, ought not to discourage. We make use of them now, only to establish principles as simple as they are sure, and to leave nothing to doubt or conjecture in the following part of this theory, which is in itself very abstruse. We shall however be obliged to use again a few more demonstrations of this kind. |
CHAPTER III.
of the most advantageous angle of the sails with the keel and the wind, in order to detain the greatest rate of sailing, on an oblique course.
25. IN most ships the sails make with the keel an angle A D R (fig. 9.) of 40 degrees, or thereabouts, (some more, some less,) when close-hauled. We are now to undertake to make it appear that this angle is not the most favourable to run with the greatest velocity, in getting to windward. It should be much more oblique; but as it is not possible, in practice, to attain the greatest perfection, we must be contented to approach it as near as possible, in great ships, by reducing the angle A D R to 30 degrees only. This will be so much the more easily done, as in every ship the two foremost shrouds of each lower mast can be suppressed. For it must be observed that in the movement of pitching and rolling, the masts always incline forward, in the direction D E of the effort of the sail; so that the shrouds which are abaft, and cat-harpened in, are sufficient to support the masts, since they act nearly opposite to the effort of the sail. Besides, should there be reason to expect bad weather, preventer shrouds may easily be fastened to the strops which are always ready hung for that purpose. This practice is so much the better grounded, as the number of those preventers can at any time be increased as circumstances or necessity require.* Therefore, we shall, for the future, consider the angle A D R, which is the most oblique in practice, as fixed at 30 degrees, though, in some ships, it may happen to be more acute: a circumstance to which particular attention should be paid. 26. Among all the angles A D R, B D R, and H D R (fig. 9.) which the sail A Z, can make with the keel in the same course D R, it is evident there must be one more advantageous than the rest, to produce the greatest velocity possible in the most oblique course. That angle of the sail and the keel is not what we propose directly to determine, since it is impossible to render it more acute than 30 degrees, the term to which we have fixed it in practice: but it will serve us to determine the most favourable angle of incidence A D V of the wind upon the sail, and which is the most advantageous to run with the greatest rapidity on all oblique courses between close-hauled and wind abaft. 27. Before we enter upon the demonstration of the rule which must be followed in practice, the principle which serves to demonstrate its utility must be first established. It may be recollected that impulsions (§ 7.) are between themselves as the squares of the lines of incidence. Therefore, to judge if it is advantageous to render the angle of incidence A D S or A D V of the wind upon the sail A Z, more or less acute, we must examine if the square of the sine of incidence A F, or the total impulsion D E, increases more or less than the squares of the sines of incidence B C and H I, or than their correspondent impulsions D G and D K, proportionally to the diminution or increase of the sines of the angle of obliquity of the sail with the keel A T, B Y, and H L: for, if the square of the sign of incidence H I, or the impulsion D K, does not increase so much proportionally, as the sine of obliquity
* This recommendation of M. Bourde, to suppress the two foremost shrouds of each lower mast, in order to brace up sharper, we are warranted in saying, cannot be followed in the British navy. It was lately determined, upon a consultation of the Officers of the King’s Yard, the question having been referred to them, that the present number and dimensions of the rigging of ships could not be advantageously altered, or safely diminished. And, as to occaisonally casting them off; it may be rendered, by the inevitable accidents of navigation, highly dangerous; as; for instance, in case of being suddenly taken a-back, this lessening of the support of the mast might be attended with its loss. |
a t diminishes in becoming equal to L H it is evident that the position of the sail A D is more favourable than when it is situated in the direction D H: and if the square of the sine of incidence B C, or its correspondent impulsion D G, diminishes more in proportion than the sine A T augments, in becoming equal to the other sine of obliquity B Y, in the other position of the sail; it is an evident proof that its situation A D is still more favourable than if it were in the position B D, and that there is even no better situation than A D, whether the angle of incidence A D V be increased or diminished.28. To prove it, we shall consider (fig. 9.) the absolute impulsions D K, D E, and D G, as correspondent with the lines of incidence H I, A F, and B C, and proportional to the squares of these same lines; then, on these diagonal lines, if we draw the rectangles X N and M O, in order to dissolve those total impulsions D E and D G, it will appear evident that the direct effort D X in the direction of the keel, is the greatest possible, when the tangent A S of the angle of incidence is double the tangent A R of the angle of obliquity of the sail with the keel; for, if the angle of incidence be opened ten degrees, by placing the sail in the situation H D, it will appear that, though the total impulsion D K is augmented in the ratio of the square of the new sine of incidence H I to the first A F, the partial effort D M, in the direction of the keel, will be nearly by one tenth less, in this situation of the sail H D, than in the first A D. The direct impulsions D M, proceeding from the total ones D K and D G, are equal, because these last have augmented or diminished in the same ratio as the lines H L and B Y have lessened or increased in proportion to the square of the sine of incidence A F, and to the sine of obliquity A T. These direct partial impulsions D M and D X are in a compounded ratio of the sines of obliquity H L, A T, B Y, equal (§ 22.) to those of the angles D K M, D E X, D G M, and of the total impulsions D K, D E, and D G; for, if the total impulsion augment by a movement of the sail, the sine of obliquity diminishes: so that from the total impulsions can at any time be deduced the direct ones for every possible angle of incidence. We might very well verify by calculation this demonstration, which proves that the tangent A S of the angle of incidence must always be double the tangent A R of the angle formed between the sail and the keel, agreeably to the situation of the sail A Z; since if any other position be given to it with respect to the wind V, whether it be in the direction H D ten degrees more open than A Z, or like B D ten degrees more oblique, a result, as D M, in the direction of the keel, will ever be found less than D X. OBSERVATIONS.
AS the vanes always indicate the apparent direction of the wind, on all the courses the ship can sail, the angle which the wind makes with the course, or the keel, cannot fail being easily known if there is no lee way; let that angle with the sails be parted into two others, so that the angle of obliquity of the sails with the course may have its tangent equal to half the tangent of the apparent angle of incidence of the wind upon the sails. On this foundation, it will be ease to form a table which will always show both the apparent angle of incidence, and that of the obliquity of the sail with the keel, or with the course. This table will serve for all oblique courses, provided the after sails cover those forward only in a trifling degree; for, should they becalm them much, they must, for other considerations, be braced up a little more to the windward; but always leave the apparent angle of incidence of the wind upon the sail more open than that between the sail and the keel, or the course. |
Theory of Working Ships - Plate 2
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ARTICLE I.
remarks on sailing by the wind.
29. When it is desired to gain to windward as much as possible, without absolutely wishing to sail with the greatest velocity, let the direction of the coast under the lee be supposed to make with the absolute direction of the wind (which must as near as possible be known) an angle of 90 degrees; or, in the sea phrase, blowing dead on shore: let the angle A C E (fig. 10.) formed by the sail and the keel, be known to be 30 degrees, let the lee-way be also known to be ten degrees, the angle E C I between the sail and the course will consequently be 40 degrees, which you must take from the total angle V C L 90 degrees; then there will remain 50 degrees, the half of which, 25 degrees, is to be taken for the absolute angle of incidence V C E, and for its equal I C L; so that the ship A B will go 55 degrees from the wind when she is close hauled, and will consequently recede as much as possible from the point D on the coast, the direction of which makes an angle of 90 degrees with the absolute direction of the wind V K. But, if the situation C L, (fig. 11.) of the point D, from which you wish to move, made an obtuse angle V C L, with the positive direction of the wind V M; then, the tangent of the apparent angle of incidence V C E must be made double the angle of obliquity E C I which the sail makes with the course, at the same time that the angle I C L, of the course and the coast shall be made equal to the angle V C E, formed by the real direction of the wind V K, and of the sail: so that two considerations must at once be attended to. For example: the angle A C E, formed by the sail and the keel, is 30 degrees; then, according to the first principle, it will be necessary that the apparent angle of incidence V C E, would be 49° 6′; and, if the difference between the apparent and real direction of the wind be 10 °, there will be 59° 6′ for the angle which the sail E V, makes with the real direction of the wind V M: so that the angle L C I, of the course and the object stood from, must be found also to be 59° 6′, and the total angle L C V, will then be 148° 12′, adhering to the two principles of sailing with the greatest velocity, and of getting to windward of the point D, as much as possible, at the same time; while the angle L C V, formed by the apparent direction of the wind and that of the coast from which the ship moves, will be only 138° 12′. The yawing and the different velocities of the ship render the angle formed by the two directions of the wind, (the real and the apparent,) more or less open. If the ship has more velocity at the same time, or if the course approaches more to the direction of the wind, it will appear by the vanes that the wind draws forward, and the angle of the two directions of the wind will augment. If the ship falls off, and yet still preserves the same velocity, or if her velocity decreases without altering her course, the wind will seem by the vanes to draw aft, and the angle of the two directions will diminish; so that, whenever the ship shall have velocity or run obliquely to the wind, there will always be a difference between its real and its apparent direction. In short, if the ship run exactly before the wind, or have no motion at all, there will be then no other but the real direction of the wind shown by the vanes: but happen how it will, in oblique courses this is however certain, that the sails are always struck by the absolute direction of the wind; because, their position being once fixed by the braces and bowlines, it can no more change, but continues as steady as the real direction of the wind; for it is the vanes only which, being moveable, fix themselves in a middle direction between the absolute tendency of the wind and the course of the ship; whence we may easily conclude, as we did before, that the apparent direction of the wind shown by the vanes, is |
a medium between the respective velocities of the ship and of the wind; since that direction necessarily partakes more of the greater velocity than of the less: so that, if the ship runs East, with the wind at South, having the fourth part of the velocity of the wind, the vanes will show S. S. E. 4° 30′ s for the apparent direction of the wind. ARTICLE II.
theorem of m. bouguer.
The velocity and real direction of the wind is C M(fig. 11.) suppose the ship A B, of which E F is the sail situated at pleasure, to draw the course C I while the particles of air run in the direction C M: if, from the point I, be drawn I K, parallel to the sail E F, till it cuts the direction of the wind, V K, in the point K, there will be given the three points C, I, K, through which draw the circumference of a circle C I L K, and that circumference will show the extent of the forces acting on the ship, at the same time, in following the course C I, provided her sail be always trimmed in the same manner with respect to her keel. DEMONSTRATION.
The apparent or relative velocity of the wind is represented by I M (fig. II.) in the course C I; and as I K is parallel to the sail E F, the angle M I K is equal to the apparent angle of incidence V C E. But to be more explicit: the wind strikes the sail with its apparent or relative velocity I M, (and not with its absolute velocity, because of the motion of the ship,) and with an angle of incidence M I K=V C E: so that, if the ship runs close hauled or perpendicular to the direct wind V C, I M will become in both cases stronger than the absolute velocity; because the ship will either approach to the source of the wind, or not recede from it. But the impulse on the sail is proportional to the square of the velocity I M, multiplied by the square of the sine of the angle of incidence M I K, equal to the angle V C E (§ 3. & 7.) and the proportion M K: sine K I M : : sine M K I which furnishes us the triangle K I M, shows us that M K x sine M K I=M I x sine K I M; squaring the two products, and substituting the sine of the angle V K I in the room of the sine of the angle M K I which is equal to it, since they are the supplement of each other, we shall then have this other equation: (sine V K I)2 x (M KO)2 = (sine K I M)2 x (M I)2; whence it follows, that instead of expressing the actual impulse of the wind upon the sail by the square of I M, multiplied by the square of the sine of the angle K I M, it may be expressed by the square of M K, multiplied by the square of the sine of the angle V K I, or of its equal V C E, formed by the absolute direction of the wind V M, and the sail E F. We must not forget to be very attentive to this; viz. that the impulse of the wind upon the sails is in equilibrium with the effort of the water on the bows, or that they are exactly equal and contrary when the ship is come to an uniformity of motion (§ 9.) as here we suppose her to be. Besides, the impulse of the water on the bows is proportional or equal to the square of the velocity of sailing C I, (§ 3.) so that the square of the velocity of sailing C I, is equal to the actual impulsion of the wind upon the sail expressed by the square of K M, multiplied by the square of the sine of the angle V C E; and if s be supposed equal to the sine of V C R, or of V K I, we then always find (C I)2=(S)2 x (K M)2. The |
The first term in this equation represents the impulse of the water on the bows, and the second expresses the effort of the wind upon the sails; and, if the square roots of the one and of the other be taken, it will be found C I = S x K M; that is to say, that the very velocity of sailing C I, will be continually equal or proportional to the product of K M by the sine S of the angle V C E or C K I. The proportion between these quantities depends on the density of the two fluids, and on the magnitude of the surfaces struck: but it will be the same in all the different courses. The different velocities of sailing C I, have a constant and given proportion with the products S x C K and C I x sine C I K; for the triangle C I K gives S : C I:: sine C I K : C K, which forms this equation, S x C K = sine C I K x C I; and all the angles C, I, K, are constant and known, since they are equal, being alternate to that which the sail makes with the course. But, as the velocity C I bears a continual and constant proportion with the product S x K M, and as it bears also a constant proportion with S x C K, it follows that S x K M : S x C K :: K M : K C; so that the point K always divides C M in the same proportion: the point K is then invariable when the sail, as well as the lee way, are both the same; (which never happens, however, as will be made appear (§ 47.) hereafter) but, in admitting those two hypotheses, which never can deviate from the truth but in respect to the lee way, which is always variable in the same ship, according to the different circumstances of wind, sea, velocity, sail, and course, it ought then to be concluded that all the points, 1, &c. will be situated on the circumference of a circle; for, without that, the angles C I K equal to those which are formed by the course and the sail, and which are supported on the same chord C K, would not be equal. COROLLARY.
Admitting therefore, (fig. 11.) that the velocities are continually proportional to the sines (whatever they be) of the angles V C E, which the sail makes with the absolute direction of the wind, provided the sail be always trimmed in the same manner with respect to the keel, and that, in the triangle C I K, the side C K and the angle C I K are constant, and the velocities of sailing C I are proportional to the sine of the angle C K I equal to the angle of incidence V C E; it follows, that, all the other conditions being the same, the more the sine of the angle V C E is augmented, the greater will the rate of sailing be; so that, if you want to carry it to the greatest rapidity, you have only to make a right angle of the angle V C E formed by the absolute or real direction of the wind with the sail; then the velocity C I will no longer be a simple chord in the circle C K I, but a diameter. This holds good for all the ships which have but one sail set; but, whenever they shall have several, the greatest velocity will be when the apparent angle of incidence of the wind upon the sail makes a right angle with the course; because then the sails will easily make with the apparent wind, an angle, of which the tangent will be double that of the angle they make with the course, without their becalming one another; while, at the same time, the ship will receive all the absolute impulse of the wind, because she does not recede from it, and it is the time when the greatest surface of sail is exposed to its impulse. The same advantage of the greatest velocity will still be had, when the apparent direction of the wind makes an angle of an hundred degrees with the course; and in this situation, the velocity will in some degree be increased. In a word, whenever the after sails do not becalm those forward, the ship’s rapidity may always be increased, by trimming the sails as directed (n. 28.) but when the sails take the wind from one another, an increase of velocity can no longer be pretended to. |
We are now going to demonstrate the exactness of the rule given before. (§ 29.) When it is required to get off shore, or recede from a given right line with all possible expedition, or to keep absolutely as close to the wind as the ship will lie; C M (fig. 11.) is the absolute direction of the wind; the circle C K L I marks all the points at which the ship can arrive with the same sail, the same disposition, without alteration of lee-way, and at the same time; and C L is the right line from which she is to move. Knowing the angle that line makes with the absolute direction of the wind V M, it is evident that the point I of the circumference, where the course ought to end, is in the middle of the arc C I L, of which C L is the chord: and all the points from one part to the other of C I, where the ship can come to at the same time, are less distant from C L, since D I, perpendicular to C L, divides it into two equal parts, and is the longest of all the perpendiculars which can be drawn from the circumference C I L; but the point I, cannot be taken without rendering the angle L C I equal to the angle C K I, which itself is equal to the angle V C E. ARTICLE III.
a table of the situation of the sails to run with the greatest velocity.
M. BOUGUER.
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N. B. The foregoing TABLE can be of no great service, except in the eight last circumstances under the line a, b; because, in all the cases mentioned above that line, the sails will cover one another too much. OBSERVATIONS.
When a fast sailing ship (such as will, on a direct course, or right before it, take a third or a fourth part of the velocity of the wind) comes to run with the same quantity, or more sail, on a perpendicular to the apparent direction of the wind, then she acquires a greater rapidity of sailing with respect to the velocity of the wind; the angle made by the two directions, the apparent and the absolute, is at that time very considerable; it may be from 18° to 22° 30′; and if the ship hauls quite close by the wind, the angle will still be nearly the same; for, her velocity diminishes: but, as it is in sailing by the wind that it is most essential to know the greatness of the angle between the two directions of the wind, let the angle between the directions of the ship’s head on the different tacks be observed, without paying any regard to the lee-way, but just to the exact point on which the ship stands, before and after going about, when strictly by the wind, neither too much to leeward nor to windward; and when you have determined that angle, from two or three observations, halve it, and then you will have the angle formed by the keel and the absolute direction of the wind; by which you will know the quantity she will come to upon the different tacks, and will never be deceived with respect to the lying on astern having gone about: a mistake pretty commonly made by those who pay attention only to the apparent direction of the wind, which always makes with the real one an angle more or less open in a compound ratio of the greatest velocity with the greatest obliquity of the course of the ship, with respect to the direction and the absolute velocity of the wind; things which vary in all ships, because they have not all the same advantage of sailing with the same rapidity in similar circumstances. CHAPTER IV.
of the sails which are before the center of gravity of a ship.
30. THE sails which are before the center of gravity of a ship, are the sprit-sail, sprit-sail top-the jib, the fore-top-mast stay-sail, and the fore stay-sail. Besides these sails there are, on the foremast, the foresail, fore-topsail, fore-topgallant-sail, and fore-topgallant-royal-sail, with their respective studdingsails. Now these four last sails may be regarded as only one large sail, wide at the foot and tapering towards the head, and which can be reduced, as occasion requires, either by taking in the royal, or by reefing the fore-top-sail, or even taking it quite in, if necessary, to have the fore-sail only set; or by hauling the fore-sail up, if nothing but the top-sail is wanted. It must notwithstanding be observed also, that the different parts of the whole sail may, in certain cases, be worked differently the one from the other; as, for example, in reeving the top-sail, or in taking in either the one or the other. But, when you want to set them to work all together, either for making a course, or performing some evolution, they must all be braced and trimmed in the same form, and with the greatest uniformity possible. Therefore, whatever we shall say concerning one of them in any operation, is to be understood to be the same with respect to all the rest. The main-stay-sail, the main-top-mast stay-sail, the middle-stay-sail, and the main-top-gallant stay-sail, are likewise sails of the fore-part of the ship’s center of gravity. |
ARTICLE I.
of the effect of the fore-and-aft-sails, which are on the fore part of the center of gravity of a ship.
31. THE jib and stay-sails being of a triangular figure, their center of gravity is easily found; and that point is to be considered as the part, in all these sails, on which the whole effort of the wind is united, when they are exposed to its impulse, in whatever way it strikes them. The particular effort of each fore-and-aft sail being on the fore part of the center of gravity of the ship, it follows that the total effort of all these sails must be there too; and that, if the ship was in a perfect equilibrium with respect to the wind, before her sails were set, she will lose it immediately after (§ II.) they will make the fore part of the ship obey the wind, whenever it strikes them perpendicularly or obliquely. For, it must be observed, that almost all these sails have their tacks; in the middle of the ship, and their sheets lead to the sides; so that they make with the keel a very acute angle: whence it is easy to conceive, that the perpendicular which would be raised on the exterior surface of these sails, in the direction of their effort to leeward, from their center of gravity, would differ but very little in the lateral direction from a perpendicular to the keel. From this we may therefore conclude, that these sails would have but very little effect to accelerate the rapidity of sailing with respect to their position, if it was not demonstrated that they are very advantageous in going by the wind. They make the ship steer well, and are particularly useful when a ship gripes much: and, when they do not take the wind out of any of the lower sails, they ought to be used, particularly when one is obliged to sail by the wind, or to run not very large. The jib and fore-top-mast staysail must be preferred, because they are at all times useful when they can receive the wind; for, by their position, they can take the wind out of any of the other sails, and their particular effect in veering is considerable, not only on account of their great surface, but because they act before the point, on which the ship turns, with a very long arm of a lever (§ 17.) On the other hand, all the sails draw the ship a-head in raising her: for the direction of their effort ascends obliquely towards the horizon; therefore, they do not make her plunge in the water, which is an advantage peculiar to them. Experience has confirmed their utility on all occasions when they can be employed without taking the wind out of the other sails. ARTICLE II.
of the effect of the fore-sail, fore topsail, fore top-gallant-sail, and sprit-sail, in their different situations.
32. WHEN the sail A B (fig. 12.) is trimmed close to the wind which blows from the point V, it is impelled in the direction C D (§ 7.) with a force expressed by the square of the sign of incidence, and composed of the two effects C E and E D (§ 19.) But, as the center of effort of that sail A B is on the fore part of the center of gravity of the ship H, and as its power C D is always decomposed between those two effects C E and E D, it follows, that the effect of this sail is to cause the ship to bear away; while it keeps up at the same time, and even augments, the rapidity of sailing. |
33. If the fore-sail A B received the impulse of the wind perpendicularly, it would still produce the effects of bearing away, and augmenting the rate of sailing, for the reasons just given above, but more effectually would it do so (§29.) on account of the increase of the impulse of the wind upon the sail. 34. IT follows, from what has been said, that when the sails upon the fore-mast are full, on the same side they are tacked, being braced obliquely to the keel, there is always one part of their effort, in proportion to their obliquity, which acts to make the ship bear away; while the other part of their effort acts at the same time to accelerate or keep up the rate of her sailing. 35. When the sails A B of the fore-mast (fig. 13.) are situated obliquely with respect to the keel, and receive the wind in them, on the side of the sheet B, they act upon the ship in bringing her up to the wind, because their effort D G being discomposed, as customary, the lateral part D F carries the fore part of the ship towards the source of the wind V, in carrying her from D to F. REMARKS.
36. IN general, when the yards are square or perpendicular to the keel, it is evident that they will act on the ship, only by impelling her right in the direction of the keel, from stern to head, or from head to stern, with more or less velocity, in proportion to the impulse of the fluid which strikes them. 37. When the sails A B on the fore-mast (fig. 14.) receive the impulse of the wind V, on their surfaces forward, they will make the ship both go a-stern and sail off; because the direction C E of their effort, being turned towards the after-part, serves as a diagonal to the parallelogram F D, which, by discomposing it, will show us those two effects C F and C D, the first of which takes its direction with that of the keel from forward aft; while the second takes it in a lateral direction in making the ship to turn. 38. When the wind blows between the keel and the yard, the ship comes to, until the point G (fig. 14.) is in the direction of the wind V. But, as soon as this is done, it is evident that she falls off; for the point G recedes farther and farther from the direction of the wind. Whence we may remark, that, as soon as the weather part of the sail catches a-back, on the tack side, the angle of incidence of the wind on it goes continually increasing, till the ship has fallen off so much, that her sail becomes perpendicular to its direction: and, if the vessel continues to fall off, then the angle of incidence diminishes more and more, till the sail is parallel to the course of the wind which comes from the tack B, or, as it is called, shivering. |
CHAPTER V.
of the sails which are abaft the center of gravity of a ship.
39. THE main-sail, main-top-sail, main-top-gallant-sail, and main-top-gallant-royal-sail, and their respective studding-sails; the mizen-stay-sail, mizen-top-mast-stay-sail the mizen-course, mizen-top-sail, mizen-top-gallant-sail, and mizen-top-gallant-royal-sail; are all sails, which are placed abaft the center of gravity of a ship, which is also abaft the point round which the total effort of the sails is placed. ARTICLE. I.
of the effect of the fore-and-aft sails abaft the center of gravity of a ship.
40. THE center of effort of these sails being abaft the center of gravity of the ship, it follows that they always force the after-part of the ship to leeward, and consequently contribute to bring her to the wind, as soon as they receive its impulse; for, that movement of the after-part of the ship cannot happen, without the head approaching to the direction of the wind. The fore-and-aft sails being in general situated very obliquely, it follows, consistently with principles, that they are very advantageous for sailing by the wind. Therefore, we must not neglect augmenting them: observing, at the same time, that they do not take the wind out of one another, nor becalm the principal sails. They are only to fill up the space between the masts fore and aft, in sailing near the wind, in order that no wind may be lost. ARTICLE II.
of the effect of the square sails of the main-mast, and of the mizen-top-sail, their different obliquities.
41. AS we have already demonstrated (§ 19.) that when the sail A B (fig. 15.) is trimmed obliquely to the keel, it produces evidently two effects on the ship; it must therefore follow, that, in dissolving its power C D, we shall find its compound effects, the one C F, in the direction of the keel which produces the velocity, and the other C E lateral, which (in forcing the after-part of the ship to leeward, by its action on the point C abaft the center of gravity G of the ship) occasions her to come to the wind; for that motion of the stern from C to E cannot take place, unless the fore-part acts contrarily in coming towards the point from which the wind blows, V. 42. If the sails A B were more or less oblique to the keel, they would still have the same effects of keeping up the ship’s velocity, and bringing her to the wind. And, if they received its impulse perpendicularly, it would still be the same thing, producing those two effects, however, with greater efficacy than in any other situation with respect to the wind, because then they receive its greatest possible impulse for the time. |
43. When the sails A B (fig. 16.) of which the center of effort C is abaft the center of gravity of the ship, receive the impulse of the wind V on the sheet side, being placed obliquely to the keel, they will cause the ship to fall off, by forcing the after-part from C to I, towards V, the source of the wind, while they will, at the same time, keep up the velocity C I. For, this motion of the after-part E towards V, cannot be executed without the fore-part E going, as it moves off, in a contrary direction; and she will continue to fall off till the keel E H be right in the direction of the wind V C, or right aft; then the ship will come to the wind, as shown in the two preceding articles.It may be remarked that, in this movement of the, ship the angle of incidence goes continually increasing till the wind is perpendicular to the sails. 44. When the sails A B (fig. 17.) of which the center of effort is abaft the center of gravity G, shall receive the impulse of the wind V on their forward surfaces, they will make the ship come to the wind, and go a a-stern at the same time. For the direction of their effort C D may be dissolved between the two efforts C F, in the direction of the keel, from forward to aft, and C E lateral and perpendicular to the keel; so that the after-part C H is forced to leeward from C to E, while the fore-part I approaches, by a contrary motion, the point of the wind V. In this case, therefore, the ship comes to, and goes a-stern. 45. When the ship is so far come to the wind, that the fore-part I (fig. 17.) has come into its direction, it is evident, that she will fall off more and more; for, that point I will constantly move from the point of the wind V; therefore, it is demonstrated that, in this case, the sine of incidence is continually decreasing more and more, till it is reduced to nothing. But, if the direction of the wind had made an obtuse angle V C B, the sine of incidence would have augmented until the direction of the wind had been perpendicular to the sails; and it is at that moment only it would have begun to diminish, as we have shewn before. CHAPTER VI.
of the equilibrium necessary to be kept in practice, between the sails before and abaft the center of gravity of a ship, in order that the sailing may be the most direct and the most rapid.
46. AFTER having demonstrated the different effects of the sails both before and abaft the center of gravity, it is clear that if either the head or after sails only were set, in sailing by the wind, the ship would not only steer badly, but consequently sail not so fast, as she could under the same quantity of surface, differently disposed. For, if the ship be supposed (fig. 18.) to be under her head sails, and one half be retrenched and set on the masts abaft, it will evidently appear that the velocity C T they produced is the same, since the direction and the velocity of the wind act always in the same manner on the same quantity of surfaces; the only difference which will be found, is, that the primitive effect is divided, and acts now on the points C, C, E before and abaft the center of gravity of the ship. It is not the same with respect to the effect C D, which acted only the head of the vessel in the first disposition of the sails, because that effect being now divided on the after-masts, it is diminished one half C E forward, by reason of that force being transporting aft, where, balancing the effect of falling-off produced by the head-sails, it keeps the ship to the wind; by equality in the movements (§ 34 & 42.) I say that it balances, because, when the weather permits, we may at any time either increase or |
diminish the sails, so as to preserve an equilibrium between their powers, and fix the ship on her course. When this point of equilibrium is obtained, we then possess the most advantageous disposition the sails can have for the vessel to run with the greatest celerity; provided that they have been trimmed in the most favourable manner to receive (§ 28.) the greatest impulse of the wind. This equilibrium between the powers of the sails forward and aft, is likewise advantageous with respect to the rudder; because, as there is less occasion to use it to regulate the movements of the ship, its surface opposes itself but little, and less often, to the shock of the water, which glides along the ship’s bottom. It is then of the greatest importance, in endeavouring to increase the ship’s way, to combine, as much as possible, the reciprocal effect of the sails fore and aft; either in setting them to the wind, or in disposing more advantageously, forward or abaft, a greater or a less quantity of sails, according as the ship is more or less inclined to fall off, or come to; in order to make as little use of the helm as possible; the whole power of which, however, at the time of performing any evolution, must be put in action, as we shall make appear hereafter. OBSERVATIONS.
47. When there is an equilibrium between the sails fore and aft, the resistance of the water from A to B (fig. 18.) on the bows is equal to the power of the sails, whether it passes through the center of gravity H of the ship, or through another point of the axis, more or less forward or aft; then a ship, thus situated, finds no more difficulty to veer than to come to the wind, with respect to the resistance of the water under her lee; since all things are equal, viz. the resistance of the water upon the bottom to leeward, and the impulse of the wind upon the sails. But it must be considered that the power composed of those of all the sails united, acts upon the ship according to the direction B A, perpendicular to their surfaces, the origin of which is the point H, a middle between all the effects C G of the sails fore and aft, which ought to correspond exactly with the resistance of the water from A to B: so that the ship is pushed to leeward of the course I K, which she holds into the direction B A of the effort of her sails; but the resistance which she finds from the water on the lee-side of her bottom, from A to B, sets her to rights again by its opposition, which is greater by reason of the greater facility she finds in dividing the fluid with her stem, than with her side; so that she runs on the true course N R, which approaches nearer to that on which she steers than B A. Therefore the angle K H R of the lee-way is proportional to the greater or less resistance the ship finds laterally from the fluid under her lee; which resistance depends intirely on the more or less facility she finds in dividing the water with her bows; so that the lee-way can never be considerable but when close hauled; for this reason, it is not much taken notice of when the course is less oblique than the wind on the beam. We might pursue this reasoning still further, from an experienced fact, which will prove that the lee-way depends, not only on the form of vessels, but still more on their greater or less velocity, and seldom, or never, on the intire disposition of their sails more or less oblique to the keel, as some authors have advanced. For, when a fine sailing vessel is trimmed sharp, with all her sails set, in a very light breeze, with which she scarcely obeys the rudder, the lee-way is considerable, though the sea be perfectly smooth. This great lee-way is made by the ship, because the vessel being only gently impelled, and with little force, the water, not being shocked with violence, offers little resistance, and she is then carried easily by her sails in the direction of their effort B A: and, if we consider the side of the ship, in the act of sailing, presenting a very great surface of sails above the water, it will visibly appear the lee-way will become still more perpendicular to the keel. But, let the |
wind begin to freshen, then the rapidity of sailing augments considerably; the ship shocks the water with a force expressed by the square of six or nine knots of velocity from B to A (fig. 18.) in the space of an hour, while the water repels her effort in a contrary direction: the water repels then in the ratio of this square to the square of her full velocity, and now no longer yields with facility (§ 4); the lee-way is suddenly diminished, and is reduced to five or six degrees, and sometimes less, if the rapidity of sailing continues to increase; if, at the very time when the ship has acquired already a very great velocity, she be kept away 12° or 15°, or even 22° 30′, without altering the sails, their obliquity remaining the same, the ship should then fall off in the same proportion, according to the opinion of those who have written on the theory of the working of ships. This, notwithstanding never happens; the velocity augments, because the sails then receive the wind with a greatest sine of incidence, and thereby acquire more power, while the bows continue to be still shocked by the fluid in the same parts, and with the same sine of incidence; so that the lee-way diminishes again, because the water makes a greater resistance from the increase of velocity; and that resistance is greater on the ship’s side than on her bows, which is less exposed to the shock. Whence it must be concluded that the lee-way, in the same ship, does not depend alone on the disposition of her sails, and that in different ships it is always dissimilar, from their not having the same form, or their sails not trimming equally in the same oblique courses; and because, in short, they have different velocities with the same weather, and under the same sails. Which proves, in a word, that the leeway is always in a proportion compounded of the velocity of the ship; of her form, which gives her more or less resistance on her side than on the bows; and of her sails, trimmed more or less obliquely. To return to the consideration of the action of the water on the bottom from A to B (fig. 18. ), it must be remarked, that it acts forward, and that it must consequently contribute very much to the tendency which almost all ships have to come to the wind, whenever the after-sails are in the smallest degree more powerful than those forward: for, the shock of the water is then a power which is to be added to that of the impulse of the after-sails, since this action of the fluid is so much the stronger as it acts before the center of gravity of the ship at the point M (fig. 18.), in impelling the fore part towards the wind, which always makes ships difficult to wear, because all the effort A B of the water’s resistance upon the bows is opposed to this movement, in forcing this part to windward with a very great effort. It is not therefore to be wondered at when ships veer with difficulty or slowly, especially such as have a large cut-water; because there are two forces acting one against the other, and the force which comes from the sail must surmount (§ 18.) that which comes from the water; which will always easily happen, whenever, in suppressing some of the after-sails, those forwards shall be disposed favourably enough to produce that effect; and when the rudder is used at the same time; the power of which is considerable, whether the ship goes a-head or a-stern rapidly. But if the ship, being abandoned to her own proper movements in an oblique course, had on a sudden all her sails suppressed, the vessel would come to the wind, should even the rudder never be used; because the water, acting on the fore part of her bottom more on one side than the other, impels the head to windward against the smaller resistance, until its power is entirely destroyed by the total cessation of the ship’s velocity. When the ship runs so large that the after-sails becalm part of those forward, this is again another reason for the ship having an inclination to come to the wind; for, the sails forward receive a much less impulse from the wind than in a course more oblique; because the sails abaft, by increasing in their power, prevent those forward from having as much wind as their surfaces would take, since all |
the lee parts of these sails become useless for the moment, being becalmed by the weather part of those on the main mast; so that the power of the sails forward diminishes, while that of the after-sails increases; for the sine of incidence is greater. The ship ought then, for these reasons, to have more inclination to come to the wind; but, regard must be paid to the direction of the power of the sails in general, which now approaches nearer the direction of the keel: so that the greatest part of their effort is in that direction, while their force in the lateral one diminishes. It should be farther observed, that when the ship has as much sail as the weather will permit her to carry, that is the moment of the greatest velocity of sailing, providing that the sails having at the same time received the most favourable disposition, an exact equilibrium has also been placed between those afore and those aft, so that there should be little occasion for the use of the rudder. APPLICATION.
48. One may readily discover, from what precedes, how to distinguish the degree of quickness with which different operations ought to be performed. For example, being obliged to run for a road-stead, the wind being large, and to let go an anchor as soon as come to it, it is evident this ought to be executed but under little sail, which should be all on the part before the center of gravity; because, in the first place, a ship has always velocity enough when she sails large; secondly, because she is to overcome the effort A B (fig. 18.) of the water which opposes her movement. If, on the contrary, being obliged to come to the wind in anchoring, as many sails as can conveniently be managed at that moment may be set, because that movement of the ship is always very quick, and as soon as the sails are taken a-back, the rapidity of the ship’s way diminishes, and in a few moments entirely ceases, whereas it always augments when the ship falls off. ARTICLE I.
remarks on the effect of the main-sail.
49. IN the use of the sails, attention should be paid to the effect of the main-sail, which perhaps may not be that of bringing the ship to the wind; for, if the ship be too much loaded a-stern, the center of gravity H (fig. 18.) of the ship might be abaft the main-mast, and then the direction of the effort of that sail, quitting the point C before the center of gravity, ought to make the ship fall off in lieu of keeping her up to the wind. But, for this to happen, the ship must be either very ill constructed, or very badly loaded; or, in short, there must be great error in the position of her masts. Notwithstanding the main-sail may always be made to assist the ship in veering, though the center of gravity H be (as it is almost always) before the effort C of the main-sail; yet, to do it, the effect of that sail need only be changed, by making it to pass before the center of gravity of the ship: which will suddenly happen, if, when close hauled, the main sheet be let go a-main, because the weather part of the sail being fixed forward by the tack, its effect is likewise before the center of gravity of the ship, though it has lost in that part much of its power, in becoming less exposed to the impulse of the wind; while the lee part, bellying out more, can receive a great impulsion of the wind, which will strike it more and more perpendicularly as the ship falls off with more and more rapidity. In this case, it may happen, that if the direction of the effort C G of the main-sail do |
not pass before the center of gravity H of the ship, it comes so near that point, that it may be said to have no longer the effect of an after-sail. ARTICLE II.
of the rudder.
50. THE rudder is a machine known to all the marine world; it is supported by the sternpost, to which it is affixed by braces and pintles, which operate as hinges. It acts by means of a lever, called a tiller, which enters nearly horizontally into the ship, passing under the upper or middle deck transom; so that if, instead of leaving the rudder exactly in a right line with the keel, and as it were a prolongation of it, it be turned to one side or the other, as B D (fig. 19.), it receives an immediate shock from the water which glides along the ship’s bottom, in running aft from A to B; and this fluid impels it towards the opposite side, while it continues in that situation, so that the stern, to which the rudder is confined, receives the same movement; and, the ship receiving an impulse sideways, her stern turns accordingly from B to b, on any point whatever C (§ 18.), while her head passes from A to a. It must be observed, that the water strikes the rudder obliquely, and only with that part of its motion which acts according to the sine of incidence, in impelling it in the direction N P with a force which depends not only on the rapidity of sailing, but also on the greatness of the sine of incidence: a force which is consequently in the compound ratio of the square of the greater or less velocity of the ship’s motion, and of the square of the larger or smaller sine of incidence, which depends upon various circumstances. So that, if the vessel runs three or four times more swiftly, the absolute shock of the water upon the rudder will be nine or sixteen times stronger under the same angle of incidence, and will be augmented in a greater proportion, if the sine of incidence be increased. This impulsion, or, what is the same, the power of the helm, is always very feeble, when it is compared with the whole weight of the vessel; but it acts with a very long arm of a lever, which occasions it to work very advantageously in turning the ship; for the helm is fixed at a very great distance from the center of gravity G, as well as from the point C, upon which the ship is supposed to turn, with respect to the point of percussion B: and if the direction P N of the impression of the water upon the rudder be prolonged, it is evident that it will pass perpendicularly at the point R, widely distant from the center of gravity G; therefore the absolute effort of the water is very powerful. It is not therefore surprising, that this machine impresses the ship with a considerable circular movement, by forcing the stern from B to b, and the head from A to a, and even much farther, when the velocity of the ship is preserved; because the effect of the helm always keeps pace with the rapidity of the ship’s way. 51. Amongst all the obliquities which may be given to the rudder, there is one situation which is more favourable than any of the others, to make it produce with more rapidity the effect of turning the ship, in order to change her course. To be convinced of this, we have only to consider that, if the obtuse angle A B D (fig. 19. ) were to be lessened, the impulse of the water on the rudder would augment, at the same time that it would more oppose the sailing of the ship, since the angle of incidence would be more open, and would present a greater surface (§ 7.) to the shock of the water, by opposing its passage more perpendicularly: but then the direction N P of the effort of the helm upon the ship would pass at a smaller distance from the center of |
gravity G towards R, and would less approach the perpendicular N L, according to which, it is absolutely necessary that the power should act with greater effect to turn the ship. Therefore, it is evident that, if the obtuse angle A B D were too much lessened, the greater shock of the water could not counterbalance the loss occasioned by the distance between the direction N P and N L, or by the great obliquity which would be given to the same direction N P of the absolute effort of the helm with the keel A B. If, on the other hand, the angle A B D were made more obtuse, the direction N P of the effort of the rudder would become more advantageous to turn the ship since it would approach more the perpendicular N L, and since the prolongation of N P would augment G R, by passing at a greater distance from the center of gravity G. But the rudder would then be struck too obliquely; for the angle of incidence would be more acute; so that it would only present a small part of its breadth to the shock of the water, and would of course receive but a faint impulsion. All this proves that the greatest distance G R from the center of gravity G will not counterbalance the too great obliquity of the shock of the water. Whence it must be concluded, that when the water strikes the rudder too obliquely or too perpendicularly, a great deal of the impulsion, or of the effect it should produce, is lost. Therefore, between these two extremes, there is a middle position, which must be the most favourable. 52. The diagonal N P of the rectangle I L (fig. 19.) represents the absolute direction of the effort of the water upon the rudder: N I expresses the portion of this effort which opposes the ship’s head-way, or which forces her a-stern in the direction of the keel. It is easy to perceive that this portion N I of the whole power of the helm contributes little to turn the vessel; for, if I N were prolonged, it would be seen that its direction passes at a very small distance G V from the center of gravity G, and that the arm of the lever B N = G V, to which the force is as it were affixed, is at most equal only to one half of the breadth of the rudder. But, it is not so with respect to the relative force N L, which acts perpendicularly to the keel. If the first force N I is almost useless, and even hurtful, by retarding the velocity; the second N L is capable of a very great effect, since it is applied at a great distance from the center of gravity G of the ship, and acts on the arm of a lever G E, which is very long. Thus, it appears, that, between the two effects N L and N I which result from the absolute effort N P., there is one which is always opposing the ship’s head-way, contributing but little therefore to the motion of her turning; whilst the other alone produces that movement of evolution, without retarding her velocity. 53. Geometricians have determined the most advantageous angle made by the helm with a line prolonged from the keel, and fixed it at 54° 44′, on a presumption that the ship is not wider at her floating line than at her keel. But, as that supposition is absolutely false, since all vessels augment their breadth from the keel upwards to the extreme breadth where the floating line, or highest water-line, is terminated; it follows, that this angle is too large by a certain number of degrees. For the rudder is shocked by the water, at the height of the floating line, more perpendicularly than at the keel, since the fluid exactly follows the outlines of the bottom: so that one could almost say, that a particular position of the helm might be required for each different sine of incidence upwards from the keel. But, as a middle position may be taken between all those points, we need only consider the angle formed by the sides of the ship and her axis at the highest water-line, in order to determine afterwards the middle point, and the middle angle of incidence. It appears, from Mr. Bouguer’sTraite de la Manoeuvre, Sect. I. Liv. II. that, in most ships, the angle of the rudder with the prolonged line of the keel should be made to be 46° 40′. Without following the |
calculations of that able geometrician, we shall perhaps be able to explain what: he has discussed in a more abstruse manner.54. When it is required to turn the ship by means of the rudder, and, at the same time, keeping the head-way as much as possible, it is evident that the angle 54° 44′, which some have determined to be the most favourable with the line of the keel prolonged, is in that case too open; because the water strikes the rudder with too great a line of incidence, and which is equal to that of the angle which it makes with the line prolonged from the keel below. Above, the shock of the water is almost perpendicular to the rudder, on account of the width of the ship’s sides, as has been shewn before. But if the rudder opposes the fluid by making only with the line prolonged from the keel an angle of 45° 1′, the impulse, by becoming weaker will be less opposed to the ship’s head-way; and the direction N P (fig. 19.) of the absolute effort of the water on the rudder, approaching nearer to the lateral perpendicular N L, will be more advantageously placed; since the prolongation of the absolute effort passes at a greater distance G R from the center of gravity G. On the other hand, experience every day shows us that ships steer well, when they do not even make the angle D B E more than 35°. If this angle be made 45°, as we require it, and then we should discompose the absolute effort N P, we have the side N I equal to the other side N L of the same square; so that the part of the total power which opposes the head-way is only equal, in this case, to that which produces the movement of rotation: instead of which, if D B E. were 54° 44′, N I would become much greater than N L, in proportion to the lines of the angles which are opposed to them in the triangles P I N or P L N, and the ship would consequently lose much more of her velocity than in the first situation of the rudder, to which we shall confine ourselves, as being that which is best adapted to the generality of vessels, but which nevertheless must be occasionally altered, according as they shall make an angle more or less open with their sides a-stern.* The angle of the rudder with the keel may always be determined with sufficient precision, by observing the rule we have prescribed (§ 28.) for the determination of the angle of the sails. 55. As the water often strikes the rudder with a very great force, the tiller has a certain length, in order to lessen the labour of the helmsman. But, to lighten his labour still more, there is in most ships, on the quarter-deck, directly over the extremity of the tiller a vertical wheel (fig. 19.) which has the effect of a capstern, and which is connected with the tiller by means of ropes and blocks (See Practice of Rigging). So that, if the wheel be turned either one way or the other, the extremity of the tiller approaches towards one of the sides of the ship, and exposes the rudder to the shock of the fluid. 56. The longer a lever is, the more effect it has when it acts with the same power: therefore, the longer the spokes of the wheel are, in proportion to the radius of the cylinder round which the tiller rope is wound, the more advantage the helmsman will have; for, if the spokes of the wheel be three or four times longer than the radius of the cylinder, the helmsman will act with three or four times more force, since he works on a lever which is three or four times longer than the radius of the cylinder, the extremity of which is supposed to be the fulcrum of the lever on which he works. So that, if he employs a force of 30 pounds weight, he will produce an effect of 90 or 120 pounds, by the disposition of the wheel alone. On the other hand, the impulse of the water is collected in the middle of the rudder’s breadth, which is very narrow, compared with the length of the tiller; therefore, the effort of the water is very little distant from the point of support,; upon which it turns: whereas the tiller forms the arm of a lever 10 or 15 times longer, which still increases the power of
* It may be taken as a general position that the most advantageous angle will always be formed between 35° and 45°, |
the helmsman in a similar proportion to that which exists between the length of the tiller and that of the lever on which the impulse of the water acts. This force is therefore 10 or 15 times stronger; and the effort of 30 pounds, which before gave the helmsman a power of 90 or 120 pounds, will become one of 900 or 1800 pounds on the rudder. This advantage proceeds from the water’s acting on a very short arm of a lever, while the helmsman works on one very powerful, in comparison; and, because this lever is moved by a wheel which multiplies its force. This demonstration ought to remove all surprise at the prodigious effect of the rudder, when its mechanism is not attended to; for we have only to consider the pressure of the water, which acts at a very great distance from the center of gravity G of the ship, as well as from the point C upon which she is supposed to turn (§ 15.) and there will easily be perceived the difference which exists between the effort of the water against the helmsman, and the effect of that same impulsion against the ship. With respect to the helmsman, the water acts with the arm of a lever N B very short, of which B is the fulcrum: on the contrary, with respect to the ship, the impulse of the water is exerted in a direction N P, which passes perpendicularly at a very great distance from the center of gravity G, in acting on a very long lever E G, which renders the action of the rudder very powerful in turning the ship: so that, if in a large ship, the rudder receives an impulse from the water 2700 or 2800 pounds (as very often happens provided that the ship sail at the rate of 9 or 12 knots, and that this power, applied at E, be 100 or 110 feet from the center of gravity G) it will act upon the vessel, to turn her, with a power equal to 270,000 or 308,000 pounds, while the helmsman need not act with a greater power than 30 pounds on the spokes of the wheel. 57. It is proper to remark, that the great length which is given to the tiller, in order to facilitate the work of the helmsman, is an obstacle to the play of the rudder; since that length hinders its presenting itself sufficiently to the shock of the water to produce all the effect which might attend it. For, this inconvenience does not, in most ships, allow the angle B D E (fig. 19) to be more open than 30°; whereas it should be 45° as we have before shewn. But, as this most favourable determination has not yet come into use, and the coarse dimensions commonly given the tiller have always been followed, we shall endeavour to propose something better for practice. It must be considered, that if the tiller were shorter, the rudder would have more play, because its extremity, in describing the arc of a smaller circle, would occasion the rudder to make an angle more open, with the keel prolonged: and this new augmentation would be so much the more advantageous, as it would approach nearer to the angle of 45°. And as, in all ships, the length of the tiller might certainly be cut a fifth shorter, or perhaps more, it is evident that, thereby, the angle of the rudder and the keel prolonged might be rendered very near 45°, which would increase its force in a proportion of nearly 3 to 5, since the square of the sine of incidence of 45° is to the square of the sine of incidence of 30° :: 5 : 3, or thereabouts. This augmentation of the impulse is often of the greatest importance, especially when ships are of a large size, as their motions are but slow on account of their length. If the tiller be shortened, the helmsman will be obliged to employ more force in proportion to the length taken from the lever on which he works: but this loss may be repaired by the facility with which the helm will be handled, if the diameter of the cylinder of the wheel be considerably lessened, augmenting at the same time the length of its axis, without diminishing that of its spokes, which ought on the contrary to be lengthened as much as possible, and two more turns of the tiller rope should be wound round the barrel. These forces would be still multiplied, if two sheaves were fixed in the end of the tiller, in two mortises which might be made for that propose, and which might work on an iron pin passing |
through their centers, taking care to have the end of the tiller stoutly hooped with iron, in order to strengthen it; then the tiller rope might be reeved through the blocks which are for that purpose on each side the ship, thence through the two sheaves at the end of the tiller, and the standing part to be affixed close to the blocks on each side. By these means nothing would be lost with respect to the force; because if the lever be shorter, the forces which cause its action are likewise multiplied in proportion. 58. after what has been said respecting the helm, it is easy to conceive, that the greater the ship’s velocity is, the more powerful is the action of the rudder, since it acts against the water with a force which increases as the square of the velocity of the fluid (§ 3.) whether the ship has head-way, or stern-way; observing always, that in these two circumstances the effects are contrary; for, if the ship goes a-stern, the rudder will be struck from I to N (fig. 19.); and, instead of being pushed from N to P, it will be so from N to R; so that the stern being moved in the same direction, the head will take a contrary one, and move towards the same side as the tiller B F. 59. It should be observed, in the use of the rudder, that there is one part of its effort which impedes the ship’s sailing when it is struck by the water which runs rapidly along the ship’s bottom. If it makes an angle of 45° with the keel prolonged, it receives only half the impulsion it would if acted upon perpendicularly; because the absolute impulse diminishes from two causes: (§ 7.) The surface which opposes the shock of the water is reduced to a less extent than it was at first, and the angle of incidence diminishes likewise: so that by this, the impulse has diminished one half. Considering next, that the impulsion N P, which remains (fig. 19.) it will appear that there is only one part N I which is opposed to the sailing (§ 54), and which is less than N P in the proportion as the sine total is to the sine of 45° the measure of the angle of incidence V N B equal to N P I; for the angle V N L is right, as well as the angle P N B; so that, if you take away the common angle L N B, the two angles P N L and V N B will remain equal between themselves; but, as the angle I P N is equal to its alternate angle P N L, it follows that I P N is always equal to V N B, whether the angle made by the rudder be more or less open with the keel prolonged. So that, if the surface of the rudder which receives the shock be 80 feet square superficies, it will first be reduced, by its being exposed to the course of the fluid, to an effort of 40 feet surface, then to 28 or 29, because, in the first place, there is only one part of the velocity of the water which contributes to the shock, and that is proportional to the relation of the square of the sine total to that of the sine of incidence; and, secondly, because out of the absolute impulse N P, which results from this last oblique shock, there is only a part N I which opposes the velocity of the ship proportional to the absolute N P, in the same relation as there is between the sine total and the sine of incidence; that is to say, that when the rudder makes, in the largest ships an angle of 45° it impedes the ship’s rapidity of sailing, in the direction of the keel, with an effort N I equivalent to the impulsion which a surface of 28 or 29 feet square might receive if it were exposed perpendicularly to the shock of the water. So that, if the ship sails 12 knots an hour, or 19 feet a second, the effort of the rudder N I, which opposes the ship’s way, will be 12,499 or 12,945 pounds; salt water weighing 1/35th more than fresh. 60. It follows, from all that has been said of the rudder, that it ought to be employed as little as possible; that is to say, the ship and her sails ought to be so disposed, that the smallest motion of this machine may bring her to her course, if she deviates from it, or make her perform any evolution which may be thought proper. |
ARTICLE III.
the time employed by different vessels to perform the same evolution, is proportioned to their lengths.
61. ALL that serves to produce motion in ships, has more force in large than in small ones; but the difficulty which large ships have to receive the motion, is greater, in a greater proportion, than that which opposes the motion of small ships. For, if the dimensions and machines which compose a large vessel, are twice as large as those which constitute a small one, (solidities being in ratio of their cubes,) the first will be eight times as great. Yet the obstacle which the large will oppose to its being put in motion will be two and thirty times as great as that of the small one. For, if both ships were considered as divided into an equal number of vertical sections, those of the large would appear to have four times as much surface as those of the small, besides that they would be twice as thick, since the dimensions are in general twice as large; consequently they will have eight times the solidity; which answers already to the relative effort of the rudder and sails. Further, the parts of the large ship are twice as distant from the center of gravity as those of the small one, since those distances are proportional to the other simple dimensions of the two ships, So that if the evolution be supposed of the same number of degrees, the stern and head of the large ship will have to describe arcs twice as large as the small one; and this greater velocity being multiplied by the solidity of the parts of the large ship, which is eight times as great as that of the small one, the product will give 16 times more motion; the resistance will act consequently 16 times as much on the large as on the small; and as that resistance operates on the arm of a lever twice as long, the total resistance of the large ship will be 32 times as great. Thence it follows, that if the forces which act on the large ship be augmented only in proportion to her solidity, she will have still four times more difficulty than the small one to get into motion: and therefore the large ship, instead of making in the same time an angle of rotation as great as the small one, will only make an angle of one fourth, or three times less. Now, that the great ship should describe an angle of rotation equal to the other vessel, it will require only thrice as much time: but that angle, or the velocity with which the ship obeys the impulse of her rudder and sails, will follow the laws of acceleration, since the velocity acquired in the first instant is continually augmenting in arithmetical progression; so that the time which similar vessels of different sizes take in performing the same evolution, will be in proportion to their lengths. But the heavier body parts with its velocity not so readily as the lighter body, because the resistance of the mass is greater, being three times heavier than that of the small ship; which being moved with thrice the facility, is also brought to rest with the same degree of ease. So that, if a vessel 100 feet long takes four minutes to perform an evolution, a similar vessel of 150 feet will take six minutes or thereabouts to perform the same circular movement. For as 100:150 :: 4:6. |
CHAPTER VII.
of the height of masts.
THE correct height for the masts of ships is still a problem which remains to be solved for the builders. The most skilful of them have not paid attention enough to the solutions and determinations which are contained in the Works of the late Mr. BOUGUER on that subject. It seems, on the contrary, as if they had endeavoured to deviate, as much as possible, from the true principles in that respect, by raising the masts a great deal more than they were formerly, although they were already much too high, as the learned Author I have just mentioned has asserted. An experience, confirmed by repeated observations, has convinced me of this truth; viz. that "as soon as a ship inclines, her velocity diminishes in proportion as her inclination increases." This principle has been verified on different vessels, and at different times by several officers; and in various oblique courses. I had no share in those various experiments, and therefore cannot be suspected of partiality: but, as they have always proved, to those who have made them, that the present mode of masting is generally too high, I will not hesitate a moment longer to deliver here an epitome of my own experiments on that subject.* Having all the sails out, and being hurried on by a strong gale, I have ordered all the top-gallant-sails, the studding and stay sails, to be taken in, without the ship losing the least perceptible degree of her velocity; nay, I have seen it sometimes to increase by a twentieth, and that at a time when the ship ran already at the rate of nine or twelve knots an hour. These trials, which I have made with care, and which were performed so quickly, that the wind should not have time to increase or diminish in strength, are sufficient to prove the necessity of lowering the center of effort of the sails in general, and consequently all the masts. These experiments have been repeated in augmenting the number of sails, sometimes at the risque of fatiguing the masts; and it has always been found that the velocity did not increase, when the ship was more inclined; but that she laboured more and more in all her parts, as her movements became stronger and the concussions of her pitchings rougher, although the sea was not more swelled. At other times, when the ship inclined pretty much, though the wind was not quite strong enough to hurt the masts, I have lessened the number of sails; and it happened that the ship, after that suppression of the top-sails, was easier in her movements, steered better, and was, in short; more quiet, though the swells of the sea were still the same; an attention which must not be neglected in these kinds of observations, which should be often repeated before a positive decision. However, we do not recommend any diminution in the surface of the sails, in lessening their height: but, it will often happen that we shall rather recommend to increase it upon the whole. For that which is lost in height, may be regained by the width. There will even result, from that operation, another advantage: the top-sails, by this reform, being shorter and, thereby, proportionally wider than the lower sails, will be more easily cut to their shape; and their sides being formed with lines exactly strait, the sail will be the more tight, by which a much greater effect on the ship will be produced. The masts being shorter, and the sails
* We have thought it proper to give the reasoning of M. Bourde upon this subject although the practice of high-masting prevails in the British Navy. |
wider, with less fall, the surface will be the same: but the effort of that surface will, with the same wind, act on shorter levers, the fulcrum of which will not be altered; therefore, it will operate at a shorter distance from that fulcrum; and therefore much less will be the power which makes the ship incline: and the ship, being more upright, will sail with more velocity, because her water-lines will be then more advantageous than when she heels. On the other hand, the sails being less inclined, they present a wider surface to, and receive a stronger impulsion from, the wind; an advantage which must always produce an increase of swiftness and a decrease of drift. Add to this the real advantages of trimming the sails better, of working them with more ease, of rendering the masting in general more solid, and more capable of resistance in bad weather, as well as in battle. But, how must we determine the height for the masts? or, in other words, how much they are to be shortened? The Treaties on the perfect masting and working of ships, by M. BOUGUER, teach us that method. It is from those Treatises I have imbibed the notions of my principles on that subject. But, in order to give a previous idea of that inquiry, and to engage the builders and seamen to bring to perfection this part both of the building and working of ships; upon which, almost as much as from their bottom, their steerage undoubtedly depends, I will subjoin here what M. BRUE, a learned and studious Officer, made me conceive on that subject. "That masting," said he, "is absolutely perfect, when the center of effort of the sails is precisely opposite to, or at the same height as, or parallel with, the point velique. What is the point velique? It is that point in a perpendicular, (raised from the center of gravity of the horizontal surface of the ship at the floating line,) which is intersected by the direction of the absolute impulse of the sea on the head of the vessel. This is the point-velique in direct courses." It is clear; no great effort of imagination is necessary to conceive this principle, which appears so evident, that it may be surprising why it has not yet been made use of. For this point once known, the center of effort of the sails will be so too; and their right height, as well as that of the masts, will be determined. A little more calculation, and an attention to the plan of the ship will be necessary, in order to find out that absolute direction of the effort of the impulsion of the water on the bows. But that should not prevent the enquiry. On the contrary, it should be an additional inducement to those who, building such good vessels as we are now possessed of, and which might still be of a more advantageous form, will be desirous to make them more perfect, by masting them more advantageously. This would undoubtedly be the case; for several vessels have had their masts cut shorter, and the practice has been attended with decided success. These facts, which could be attested by many able seamen, will always speak highly in favour of this principle; although, when that shortening was made, the sails were not widened in proportion. "But," continues M. BRUE, "in carrying this inquiry farther than it ever was, the intersection of the two above-mentioned lines, (viz. that of the absolute impulse of the water on the bows, and that of the perpendicular at the center of gravity of the surface of the floating line of the ship,) cannot take place unless in a direct course; and, as soon as the course becomes oblique, they no longer meet. The center of gravity of the floating line's surface of the ship passes to the leeward of its axis, on account of the inclination which always occurs in that sort of course; and the direction of the shock of the fluid, which then takes its origin a little to leeward also of the bow, passes, in its prolongation, to windward, without meeting the perpendicular at the center of gravity of the floating line&'s surface;" (which is easily conceived, if we represent to our imagination the horizontal edge of that floating line’s surface but ever so little inclined;) "whence it results that |
"no point-velique will be found in any course but a direct one: which is true; unless we could fancy such a ship as would neither drive nor incline in an oblique course: but that is not possible; and hence no perfect mode of masting could be discovered in the last case of the oblique course." This is true, strictly speaking: for, in each instant of a course a different point of the bow is struck by the water; which is owing to the pitching of the ship, the continual variations in the strength of the wind, and the greater or smaller inclination produced by the rolling motion of the ship. "But," says again M. BRUE, " the point-velique, relative to these various circumstances, varies therefore in the proportion of the almost infinite variety of those circumstances, which accompany the course of a ship, that is to say, according to all the degrees of drift, all the degrees of inclination on either board, forward or abaft; as many times, in short, as there are new points of the bow either struck, or no longer struck, the point-velique ascends or descends. "I pass over the minute examination I could make of each particular cause which contributes to lower that point from its utmost height, which is in the direct course, to its lowest, which takes place in the most oblique course, accompanied with the greatest lateral inclination of the ship: and there is no method to get out of that common road which is pursued in determining the dimensions of the masts, but that of attending to the following considerations; viz. Such a ship being intended for such a latitude, the wind she is most commonly to expect there, will be nearly of such a strength, and generally oblique to her course by so many degrees: so that her most common drift will be nearly so many degrees, and her lateral inclination so many, &c. To give her, therefore, the most suitable masting, making her relatively perfect, we must seek for her point-velique in what situation we shall think most convenient, and there place the center of effort of her sails." All this reasoning tends evidently to the shortening of all the masts, and proves the necessity of doing it, at the same time as it determines their height. The most difficult point, in that operation, is to find out the direction of the absolute impulsion of the water on the bows, when the ship steers a course close hauled and one with the wind on the beam, with such an inclination as the ship could be supposed to have in either of these two courses; when the wind would allow to have four square-sails set, together with the mizen top-sail. Considering these two suppositions of the wind on the beam, and close hauled, it will be easy to determine the height of the masts proper for that double situation; because, if the gale blows harder, one may lessen the number of sails; if weaker, one may increase it by adding stay-sails, top-gallant sails, jib, &c: if the wind gets more aft, then the surface of the sails may be increased again by adding the studding and top-gallant royal sails: finally, it is very clear that top-gallant and top-gallant royal sails will always be of service when the center of effort of the sails should ascend. |
CHAPTER VIII.
observations on the different inclinations given to the masting of ships, with respect to the water-line.
THE masts are hardly ever stepped in the same manner in all ships. This, too, is one of those things which are rather regulated by custom than reason. Some will have them perpendicular, while others chuse to have them rake forward, and others aft. Each party bring, to support their opinion, reasons drawn from some experiments which chance has sometimes rendered specious. In this respect, we should rely on the judgement of the builder, who ought to know the qualities of his ship even before he puts her on the stocks. If one has not an opportunity of taking directly from him the necessary instructions, it is proper to observe that, if the masts are made to rake forward, the direction of effort of the sails will be inclined towards the bottom, obliquely with the horizon; which will consequently make the head of the ship plunge whenever they receive a strong impulse from the wind; and this may diminish the head-way of the ship, while it increases the celerity of the pitching: the sails also will be with more difficulty trimmed, especially when close hauled, since the bracing of the yards will be more confined. Therefore, the only advantage which can be drawn from this oblique masting of ships, is only to render the ships more ready to fall off. If the masts are perpendicular the direction of effort of the sails will be horizontal, always supposing the ship to be in an upright position. Therefore, this effort not being discomposed, it will preserve a much greater action, and the ship will sail with the greatest velocity she is capable of. If the masts rake aft, the ship will be more ready to come to the wind, because the sails will be a little more aft: these will also be more easy to trim sharp because the braces will not be so much confined. As this position of the sails will raise obliquely above the horizon the direction of the effort on the ship, it follows that, by their power, the ship will be eased away from the water: for, it is certain that she will not prolong her course, unless she heels too much; therefore, she will rise more lightly over the waves, pitch less, keep better the wind, and tack quicker. This is nearly all that can be said in respect to practise. CHAPTER IX.
of the tension of sails, and their tendency to fix themselves perpendicularly to the direction of the wind.
I. IT is clear that sails are never perfectly flat. But every one is not persuaded that the more extended is the sail, the greater impulsion it receives from the wind, which strikes it perpendicularly, and the more effectually, of course, the sail acts on the vessel. It is astonishing that any seamen should be of opinion that a bag must be left at the foot of the sail, to lodge the wind in. A hauled- |
down top-sail has as much cloth displayed in it as when hoisted up and well extended. It forms then, by its convexity, a considerable kind of bag, in which the wind may play at ease; and it is observed that the rapidity of the sailing decreases very much; whence we must necessarily conclude, that the impulse of the wind must have greatly diminished, since the sail produces no longer the same effect upon the vessel. To know demonstratively the cause of that diminution in the impulse of the wind, we have only to pay attention to the air which acts against the foot and the head of the sail; for that part of the wind, which strikes at the head, makes an effort to re-act towards the foot against that which, having struck at the same instant at the foot, endeavours to re-act towards the head. From this shock results (though the air escapes at each side) a compression in the sail. But, after having acted inwardly in the same manner as if it were shut up, it finds itself more and more compressed by that which succeeds to the first; and, though it escapes by the sides, it is evident that it tries to extend, and that it impels consequently with an equal power, all the parts of the sail perpendicularly; and this is the cause of the sail taking the form of a circle’s arc. Therefore the sail will produce no greater effect than if it had no greater height than the space contained between the two yards: it may not even, strictly speaking, have that whole effect; for, that sort of whirlwind, which is made in the center, by the re-action of the wind which strikes the upper and lower parts, cannot fail to diminish the shock of those particles, which succeeding the former, would have struck the sail with all their primitive power; instead of which, this power is now almost intirely destroyed by this barrier which opposes for a while their passage. To which may be added, that the sail having the form of the arc of a circle, very little wind can strike it perpendicularly; and that it must, of course, have much less effect than another sail, of the same height and width, which should be very exactly stretched out. The sails of a ship should be cut in such a form, as to present as flat a surface as possible. II. The center of effort of the impulse of the wind upon the sails, exposed perpendicularly to the course of the wind, answers exactly to the center of gravity of the surface, struck in that direct situation. But, as soon as it is presented obliquely to the course of the fluid, and kept so, the center of effort of the total impulse will pass on the weather side of its center of gravity; because the particles of air which at first met the surface, have been re-acted, and by that re-action, they stop part of the passage to the succeeding ones, which diminishes of course both the strength of the shock and the impulse they would have communicated to the sail, if their movement had not been interrupted. But, this deviation of re-action in the first particles of air which have struck, is repeated afterwards. For, all those which succeed them while the surface is kept obliquely to the wind, continue to re-act to leeward: so that, from the first vertical line (taken from the windward side) out of all those which form together the surface, there is a continual series of obstacles which change the shock of immediate and succeeding particles, and which alters it so much the more as they ought to strike the parts of the sail most to leeward, and so much the less as they will strike those which are most to windward. Therefore, the leeward side of sails, obliquely exposed to the wind, is always less struck than that which stands to windward. Whence it results that the center of effort of the absolute impulse of the wind on the sail, is lodged in the weather side of the sail, (for it is supposed to be equally divided in two,) since that is the part which receives more impulsion. Therefore, the center of effort is also to windward of the center of gravity of the surface; and the removal of this center of effort towards the wind, is in proportion to the impulse received on the weather side of the sail, and that received on the lee side. The truth of this assertion is continually demonstrated by daily experience of ships at sea. The sails are carried by the yards and by the masts, which divide them perpendicularly into two equal parts, from top to bottom, through their center of gravity. When, being placed obliquely to the wind, they are left at liberty, without being confined by their braces or bowlines, they immediately range themselves |
perpendicularly to the course of the wind, because their weather side receives more impulse than the lee side; and there they remain constantly, unless their position be altered; because all their parts are struck equally, and an equilibrium is kept among them; for, the power of the wind, whether it increases or decreases, acts always the same on them all. This proof, which shews the difference between the center of gravity and the center of effort in the sails, requires much attention in the use of that knowledge in practice. For example, in the middle of the yards on their aft side, there might be fixed a cleat, or bolster, which, in oblique courses, pushing them to leeward, would ease them off from the shrouds, and facilitate their bracing in carrying their center of gravity, as well as the center of the absolute effort, a little to leeward; which operation would of course draw that center of gravity nearer to the axis of the ship, from which it is so essential to remove it as little as possible. CHAPTER X.
general observations on the effect of more or less surface of sails exposed, in various weathers, to the wind.
I. WHEN a ship, with a certain quantity of sail has acquired the utmost velocity with the power which then puts her in motion, it is certain that, if the surface of the sails is either increased or diminished, the rapidity of the head-way will likewise augment or lessen in a very complicated ratio. In order to find out the degree of impulsion of the wind on the sails, multiply their surface by the square of the excess of the velocity of the wind on that of the ship, or, which is the same thing, by the square of the apparent velocity of the wind. Then, a second multiplication of that product is to be made by the square of the sine of the angle of absolute incidence, or, in the second case, by the square of the sine of apparent incidence. And this second product will give the degree of the absolute impulse of the wind on the sails, in the actual state which we have supposed. In order to find in what ratio the surface of the sails is to be augmented to make the ship acquire a certain degree of velocity above that which she possessed under a supposed particular quantity of sail, it must first be known by how much the velocity of the wind exceeds that of the ship: then, knowing how many degrees her head-way is wished to be accelerated, the sails must be increased in the ratio of the squares of the two velocities of the ship; viz. that which was known before the alteration of the sails, and that which she is afterwards to acquire. But, as the ship recedes so much the more from the action of the impulse of the wind as her velocity increases, it is evident the surface of the sails must be increased also in the ratio of the square of the two excesses, that is, the different excess of the wind over that of the ship both before and after the increase of the sails: then, the ship will acquire the wished-for velocity; |
provided no other cause happens to oppose it, as we have already hinted before, and as we shall have an opportunity to shew more particularly hereafter. Suppose the wind has 12 degrees velocity, and the ship, under a certain set of sails, has 3; the velocity of the wind, in the direct course, will exceed that of the ship only by 9 degrees. If the velocity of the ship is intended to equal the third part of that of the wind, and to have therefore 4 degrees for head-way; then the sails are, to this effect, to be increased in the ratio of the squares of the squares of the two velocities 9 to 16, because the resistance of the water on the bows will increase in that very proportion. But, in the first case, the velocity of the wind exceeded that of the ship by 9 degrees, while in the second case it exceeds it no more than 8. Hence it results that the impulse of the wind on the sails has diminished in the ratio of the two squares 81 to 64: and, in order to repair that loss in the impulsion of the wind, the expansion of the sails is also to be increased in that last ratio of 64 to 81: then the ship will be able to run with the degree of velocity defined. II. When the masting is perfect, that is to say, when the ship is masted according to the point-velique, she will rise from the water parallel to herself by a certain quantity relative to her velocity, and she will rise always more and more in proportion as she acquires new degrees of velocity in her head-way. Because she is moved by forces which stand exactly and continually in equilibrium with the action of the water on her bows, the inclination of which forward contributes so much the more to that rising out of the water as it is more remote from the perpendicular. For, then, the vertical impulsion will have more power, since it acts more directly on a very oblique bow than it would on a vertical one. This reasoning may be as exactly applied to the direct impulsion, the absolute effort of which may be decomposed, since it acts less against the velocity of the sailing on an oblique bow than on a vertical one, while the other part of its action joins with the vertical impulse to raise the head of the ship, which shocks the water with very great strength when she is arrived to a great velocity, and which water opposes her so much the more as it is shocked with violence. So it is easy to conclude that, in any ship whatever, the more rapid the head-way is the more parallel to herself she rises above the water, if the center of effort of her sails is at the same height as the point-velique: for the point of the bows, on which may be considered as united the action of the water which opposes its progress, may be taken also as the point of bearing. So that all the sails acting from abaft to forward on different points of the axis of the ship, (she being considered as a lever in the direction of her length), they raise the after part of that point, and place it on a level with the elevation of the bows; which never can happen, if the center of effort of the sails is above or below the point-velique. If it is placed above, the power of the sails, acting on too long levers, will raise the after part of the point of bearing of the bows above the level of the elevation of the ship’s head. If it is placed below, the power of the sails, acting on too short levers, the after part of the ship will remain plunged in the water, without being able to rise on a level with the bows. Therefore, in either of the two cases, when the center of effort of the sails is either above or below the point-velique, the ship, however well-built, will lose some of the qualities of sailing, either in her readiness to obey the helm, or in her steadiness to carry sail, especially if she is over-masted: for, in this last case, she will gripe, incline easily, and lose much of her head-way, since her bows will plunge in the fluid, or, rather, her stern will rise too much out of it; which will diminish; the action of the water on the rudder and increase it on the bows. In the last case, an inconvenience of which ship builders seldom, if ever, have been guilty, the ship will be slow to obey, and her head-way will be slackened, because she will never present her most advantageous water-lines to the fluid, nor have a sufficient |
surface of sails, as, although their width is the same, their height is not so. The point of perfection then is this, viz. when the center of effort of the sails is placed at the height of the point-velique. III. The next proposition will appear a paradox to many seamen. But, it is no less self-evident. There are many cases in which the adding of a few sails, instead of increasing a ship’s velocity, retards it. It is however an error into which all seamen almost continually fall, when, in a strong gale, they want either to distance, or approach a ship. When their own ship is arrived to a very great velocity (sometimes of twelve and more knots an hour), if they have to do with an adversary the rapidity of which is nearly equal to that of their own ship, they fancy that, by adding more sails to those they have already, at the time when their ship is perhaps best disposed and arrived at its utmost degree of swiftness, they shall increase the rapidity of her head-way; and, accordingly, they hoist up some additional stay or studding sails, especially if the wind happens to be on the beam or a little more aft. But, by this their expectations are baulked; for the ship becomes more inclining, her head plunges, and the resistance of her bows increasing in the direction of the keel more than the effort of the sails in the direction of the course, the rapidity decreases in so much as the water acts more powerfully than the sail does. Besides all this, those forward and lateral inclinations of the ship, produced by the effort of the new-added sail, which have caused the center of effort of the sails to ascend, and the point-velique to descend (if the new-added sail has been set above it), cause also the ship not to rise from the water parallel to herself; she rises her stern and plunges her head; whence it results that she gripes from two causes: first, because, as her stern lies less in the water, the rudder is of course exposed to a less shock; and the stern, which always acts as a sail, is more easily mastered by the wind which strikes it then on the beam with a great deal more efficacy than it does her head; on the other hand, as the resistance of the water on the lee bow has increased by the inclining of the head, plunging thereby that part of the ship which is the most full in its shape, and increasing also the surface on which the water acts, which has both diminished the head-way and increased at the same time the lateral impulse on the side of the bow; so that lateral impulsion forces the ship to windward more at the head, than she is impelled to fall off by the lateral part of the effort of the new-added sail. Whence it follows that the ship becomes still more griping, which is an additional cause of the decrease of her head-way; because, the helm being more a-weather, in order to hold the ship better to her course, more of the rudder itself is presented to the run of the water; and by the great surface it offers more directly to its shock, and retards the velocity of the ship. Whence we are to conclude that as soon as any more sails are added to a ship which carries already a sufficient quantity of them, she will lose her qualities of steering well and making good head-way, whether those additional sails are set forward or a-stern. |
A Picture of all the Courses which a Ship can make, the Wind being in any given point.
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BEFORE we enter upon the practice of working ships, it becomes proper to introduce to the Reader’s notice two figures, which may be of service to the juvenile seaman, and assist him greatly in comprehending the directions given. The first of these (which is affixed to the opposite page) is a picture of all the courses which a ship can make, the wind being in any given point. The outer circle of this figure is marked with the points of the compass; the inner circle is moveable round its own center; and, if the arrow be brought to that point of the outer circle from which the wind is supposed to blow, all the various courses, on both tacks, that may be sailed with that wind, will be instantly seen. Example. Let the wind be supposed at East, then move the inner circle, till the arrow is at the East point, and it will be found, that close-hauled on the larboard tack is S S E; one point large, larboard tack, is S by E; wind on the beam, larboard tack, is S; and thus all the courses are shewn from close-hauled on one tack to close-hauled on the other tack. |
The second figure (affixed to this page) is the minature of a ship, so contrived as to convey a very lively idea of the manner of working a ship in tacking, veering, &c.The extreme circle is supposed to be the horizon, marked with the points of the compass.The inner graduated circle is divided into 360 degrees. The moveable circle is intended to represent the direction of a tide, current, or swell of the sea, whenever their setting varies from the direction of the wind; but, in cases where neither tide, current, or swell of the sea exist, or where they run directly to leeward, this moveable circle is to be turned, so as that the lines which cross it are parallel with the wind. The small ship moves round its supposed center of gravity, and has on it the jib, lower yards, and stay-sails, inscribed jib, fore stay-sail, fore yard, main staysail, main yard, mizen stay-sail, cross jack The yards must be conceived to represent either the whole of the square sails upon each mast, or only such of them as may be necessary to the particular manoeuvre it may be used for: the same observation applies to the staysails; the tiller and rudder need no explanation. The figure is not confused with braces to the yards, nor sheets to the staysails; therefore, when it is necessary to let go a particular sheet, to slack or haul a particular brace, these must be imagined to be done. the following example will explain the manner of using it.
Suppose the wind at North, and that a ship, which is sailing close-hauled on the starboard tack, is to be put about, and got on the larboard tack, close-hauled. First, place the lines of the moveable circle in the direction of the wind, because we shall now suppose that there is neither tide, current, or swell; then place the ship’s head to the W N W, trimming the sails so as to make an angle with the keel of 35 degrees, (the usual angle when near to the wind,) which is easily done by means of the graduated circle, and put the helm in midships. From this situation the ship is to be got on the other tack. Now put the helm a-lee, and imagine the fore sheet and fore-top bowline to be let go; move the ship gradually to the wind, as if it were done by the action of the rudder, till the yards are in the direction of the wind, and of course the wind is out of the sails; at which time suppose tacks and sheets to be raised. Then move her head to about a point or rather better from the wind, and the fore sail will be flat a-back, forcing round the ship’s head; the wind will now catch a-back the weather leech of the main sail; therefore suppose the main sail to be hauled, and brace round sharp the after yards. The sails being now all a-back, and the ship moved head to wind, it may be supposed that the headway has ceased, and the sternway commenced; now therefore shift the helm. The ship then being moved to bring the wind on the larboard side, bear the stay-sails over to leeward, and keep moving the ship round, till her head is six points from the wind, when it will be seen that the after sails are full; then let go and haul, brace round the head yards, right the helm, trim all sharp, and the ship will be close-hauled on the starboard tack. If a current, tide, or swell of the sea, set in any particular direction, different from that of the wind, the lines across the moveable circle must be placed in that direction; by which, as the operation proceeds, the mind will more correctly perceive in what degree that tide, current, or swell, will operate either to retard or accelerate the manoeuvre. In the course of the practice of working ships, an occasional use of this figure may often assist the reader to conceive, with greater readiness and with more precision, the effect of various operations. |
The miniature of a ship, so contrived as to convey a very lively idea of the manner of working a ship in tacking, veering, &c.
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THE
PRACTICE OF WORKING SHIPS. THE useful part of a seaman’s duty is the application of his theoretic knowledge to the various evolutions of a ship. We are now about to shew how those various evolutions should be performed, consistently with the principles upon which the science of Navigation is founded. A ship, when launched from the stocks, is furnished with one stream anchor, and another which is termed a launching-anchor, somewhat heavier than the stream-anchor, hanging by stoppers to the catheads; by one or both of these she is first brought up, and afterwards warped to what are termed HEAD AND STERN MOORINGS;
of which the following is an accurate description. Across the bottom of the harbour or river, two chains, (parallel to each other, if the bed of the river will admit of it), are extended at the distance of 200 feet from each other, by means of anchors, having one fluke only, which is sunk, and secured in the ground by piles, on the opposite sides near low-water mark. To the rings of those anchors these chains are connected by a peculiar sort of link, called a shackle, which is delineated in the plate. Each of these chains has, at about one-third of its length, a large iron ring, to which is fastened a chain, called an up-and-down span; which, lying on the ground, connects the parallel chains, and serves to keep them steadily in their places. At about 30 or 40 feet distance from each other, along each chain, chain-pendents (from 5 to 9 in number) are fastened, having, at the end which connects with the ground-work, a shackle; and, at the other end, a link called a jews-harp, through which the bridle or hawser of a ship, when moored, is passed. The centre chain-pendent is afixed to the ring of the chain; and the number of the chains must depend upon the number of tiers required, each tier occupying two chains, because the ships are moored head and stern. But every tier does not always occupy two whole chains; because, unless a passage between the tiers is requisite, the chain to which the head chain-pendent of one tier is affixed, has likewise fastened to it the stern chain-pendent of the next tier. A reference to the plate will elucidate this. |
A Representation of Mooring Chains.
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These moorings are calculated for and used in rivers, or harbours of small extent; but in other places, where either many ships do not frequent, or the extent of which is considerable, there is another sort in use, called, SWINGING MOORINGS.
These differ from the former only in this; the ground-work being the same, to the ring of the chain is fixed one chain-pendent, the end of which is passed through a large buoy; and to that is connected a swivel ring by a shackle; and thus kept constantly from sinking to the ground. This is used for mooring one or two ships to. Near each end of the chain is fixed one more chain-pendent, supported likewise by a buoy, which is used only for the purpose of warping ships from the middle to any intended place. OF MOORING TO HEAD AND STERN MOORINGS.
To these moorings ships are thus fastened: clench the end of a bridle to the jews-harp of the chain-pendent, and pass it into the hawse-hole; then heave it up and bit it. Take the after bridles into the gun-room port, or in upon the quarters; and take a round turn round the beam of the after hatch, and cross it with a throat and round seizing; or if more convenient, round the jeer bits. OF MOORING TO SWINGING MOORINGS.
Pass out the ends of the bridle; one on each side, through the hawse-hole next the stem; then pass them through the swivel-ring of the chain-pendent; then return them into the ship through the after hawse-holes, and bit them. In this situation a ship is fitted for sea, by regularly stowing her ballast, and getting on board her rigging, stores, &c. We shall therefore proceed to discuss the Theory and Practice of ballasting, and afterwards treat of the manner of getting on board and stowing the anchors and cables, before we enter upon the method of navigating a vessel in various situations |
OF the BALLAST AND LADING.
WHEN a ship is loading, it should be considered, that her tendency to pitch or roll depends not alone on her form, but even more upon the more or less advantageous distribution of the heaviest parts of her cargo. Particular attention is to be paid to moderate her pitching, as that is what most fatigues a ship and her masts; and it is mostly in one of these motions that masts are seen to break, particularly when the head rises after having pitched. Although the rolling be proportionably a more considerable movement than pitching, it is seldom any accident is seen to arise from it, as it is always a slow one. It is however not less proper to prevent it as much as possible. This will in general be easily obtained, without being any way detrimental to the ship’s stiff carrying of sail, if, when the ballast is iron, you stow it up to the floor-heads; because it will recall the ship with less violence after her having inclined, and it will act on a point but little distant from the center of gravity. To make this clearer, let us consider it by the assistance of a figure. First, let it be understood, that the CENTER OF GRAVITY of a body is that point by which it may be suspended, and the parts remain in perfect equilibrium. That the CENTER OF CAVITY is the center of that part of the ship’s body which is immersed in the water; and which is also the center of the vertical force that the water exerts to support the vessel: That the CENTER OF MOTION is the point upon which a vessel oscillates, or rolls, when put in motion. That the METACENTER is that point, above which the center of gravity must by no means be placed; because, if it were, the vessel would overset. Various methods have been recommended to find all these different points; some of them are in their nature fixed, others varying. Thus, when a ship is completely loaded, the center of gravity is fixed, howsoever the vessel may alter her position. The center of motion is always in a line with the water’s edge, when the center of gravity is even with or below the surface of the water; but, whenever the center of gravity is above the water’s surface, the center of gravity is then the center of motion. This must be understood of bodies not perfectly circular; for, if circular, the center of motion will be the center of the circle. The center of cavity varies with every inclination of the ship, because that depends upon the shape of the body immersed. The metacenter (which has been likewise called the SHIFTING CENTER) depends upon the situation of the center of cavity; for it is that point where a vertical line drawn from the center of cavity cuts a line passing through the center of gravity and being perpendicular to the keel. |
Let the segment of a circle 1 2 3 represent the transverse section of a vessel’s bottom; W L the surface of the water; M the metacenter as well as the center of motion, because this is a circle; C the center of cavity; G the center of gravity; and the line 2 4 the vertical axis of the vessel which may be turned round the point M, as on a fulcrum supported by the center of cavity. By thus simply considering the vessel as a lever in the direction of her vertical axis playing round her center of motion, it is plain, that if the center of gravity was placed above the point being the metacenter too, the vessel would upset; therefore, that the ship may have stability, the center of gravity must be below this point: and it may be observed, that the farther G is removed from the metacenter, the greater must be its force, as the gravity then acts with a greater length of lever, considering the fulcrum of that lever to be at the center of motion; or, if the weight at C be augmented, it will likewise increase the force; therefore the force of G may be expressed, by multiplying the balance of weight beneath the center of motion, by the distance of the center of gravity from the center of motion. The centers of cavity and motion (in circular bodies) will ever be in a line perpendicular to the horizon, but the center of gravity may be either on one side or the other of this line. When such a body is at rest, the center of gravity will be in this line; but if in motion it will be diverted from it. Thus the points M and C, will always be perpendicular to W L, but the point G, by the body’s rolling, may be on either side; for instance at g. While G is perpendicularly beneath the center of motion its action can only tend to preserve this circular body in her erect position; but if it is removed to either side as to g, its action is to return it to the erect position; and this action increases as the distance G g, which is the sine of the angle of roll g M G, the distance M G being considered as the radius. Thus, to gain the force of gravity with any roll as g M G, let the balance of weight beneath the center of motion be multiplied by the sine of the angle of roll G g. But the tendency to roll may be also diminished by the shape of the hull: for, let us suppose that the transverse section be allowed more beam, and increased by the dotted lines. Now, when this vessel is rolled over, it is plain that. the cavity will be augmented towards the side L, of course its center must remove towards L, say to c; and, if from c be erected a perpendicular to the horizon, it will cut the vertical axis at n, which will, in this case, be the metacenter, above which if the center of gravity were placed, it would act in conjunction with the center of cavity to overset the vessel: but, as the center of gravity is here below it at g, her stability will be increased by the increased distance of G from n, the metacenter; and the vessel will roll round the point M as her center of motion. When sailing in smooth water, the greater the stability the better; but if a vessel with a heavy cargo, stowed low in her bottom, be sent out into a rough tempestuous sea, where every wave will throw her from her equilibrium, she will return with such violence as to endanger her masts; and should she |
be dismasted, her roll will then be with still greater force, possibly to the destruction of her hull. Was the cargo in this laboursome vessel to be removed higher up towards the center of motion, so as to lessen her stability, she would be found considerably easier; her roll would be by such deliberate motions, as to lessen the danger to her masts and hull. The ballast is placed round and very near the center of gravity of the ship, because it will prevent the motion of the pitching being so hard as it would, if that weight were distant either afore or abaft that point. Whenever the sea runs a little high, the ship is never carried by a single wave; there are generally two or three always passing under at the same time, unless when the sea is extremely long, the swells coming from a great distance, and in latitudes very remote from land: for, then, it happens that the largest ships are sometimes carried by one single wave. But, in either circumstance, the ballast ought not to be stretched afore or abaft the center of gravity, as soon as the ship is in the parallel to her draught of water marked for the ballast, which it is absolutely essential to pay attention to. To prove this principle, suppose in either case a long or short surge, and that the water strikes the ship forward, that thereby she may be exposed to the greatest and hardest pitching: for, when the wave takes a ship under the stern, her motions, if she has got a little head-way, are not dangerous; because, as she flies before the wave, she recedes in some measure from its impulse; while, in the first case, she increases on the contrary that same impulse in the ratio of the square of all her velocity. First, the ship, whose extremities are light or little loaded, being supposed to run with any velocity whatever against the wave which comes to her a-head, shocks that wave with a force expressed by the square of the sum of the two velocities: she divides it and goes through it, at the same instant that she is raised by the vertical impulse of that column of water, which opposes to her a supporting power too considerable for her weight to displace: the wave which follows produces the same effect in receiving the fall of the ship, because the first is already under the middle of the ship, whence it passes to the stern, which is supported by it, while the second takes its place in the middle, and the third is come to support the head; and this is an uninterrupted succession. This motion continuing thus as long as the sea is agitated, it follows that the ship is never at rest: no sooner has she been raised by a wave, but she falls again when that wave is gone, which falling is proportionably less sharp as her head is less heavy: the shake is then less violent, since she shocks the water with a less mass, which prevents her pitching so deep as she would, if she were more heavy; consequently, the masting does not suffer, and the head-way is less delayed, as the fullest part of the bows is not so much exposed to the shock of the water. Secondly, When the ship is carried by one single wave, her fall is still less sharp, if little loaded a-head, than when she is carried only by the middle. She rises, Therefore, more easily at the moment the other wave comes to strike her, and the shake is not so violent. Was she to plunge deeper into the fluid, it might happen that the column of water would become higher than her head, and, passing partly over it, would expose her to the danger of foundering. In the stowing of the cargo, it is proper to place the heaviest part of the stowage as low as possible, taking care to preserve that draught of the ship which is most advantageous for her, whether she be in ballast or when laden. Those points are marked both at the head and stern: In a word, the great art of stowing lies, in endeavouring that each of the vertical parts, in which the extremities of a ship may be supposed to be equally divided, be lighter, when her lading is complete, than the weight of the mass of water they are to displace; observing always, that the vertical parts of the middle admit of being loaded more heavily than the weight of water they are able to displace. |
Practice of Stowing a Ships Ballast &c. and of Stopping Gun-Shot Leaks.
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The PRACTICE of STOWING BALLAST, &c.
In the royal navy, the iron ballast is first stowed fore and aft, from bulkhead to bulkhead in the main hold, next to fir cants nailed on the limber-strakes on each side the kelson, five or more inches clear of the limber-boards; and is winged up 3 or more pigs above the floor-heads in the midships, or bearing part of the ship, and there are two tiers of pigs in the wake of the main hatchway and well-wings. Ships, built with a very clean run aft, seldom have any iron ballast stowed abaft the pump well or after hold. Ships that have floor and futtock riders, have the iron ballast stowed, either lengthways or athwart-ships, agreeably to the length of the chambers, which are the clear spaces between the riders. The shingle ballast is next spread and levelled over the iron ballast; on which is stowed the ground tier of water, bung up and bilge free from the sides, either chine and chine, or bouge and chine, beginning at the coal-room bulkhead, that being the foremost, and making the breakage, if any, at the main hatch: The midship tiers, fore and aft, are the first laid down, and the casks are sunk about one quarter of their diameter into the shingle; the sides are filled-in with wingers of small casks, as half-hogsheads, gang casks, or breakers; observing not to raise the wingers above the level of the tier, to cause a breakage in the next tier above, which is stowed in the cuntline of the ground tier, bung up and bilge free; and so on, for as many tiers as can be stowed sufficiently clear of the beams. In the after hold, between the aft-side of the pump well and fish room bulkhead are stowed the provisions above the ground tier: between the casks, billet, or other wood and shingle ballast. In the fish room are stowed some of the spirits, or wine, and sometimes coals; and, in the spirit room, are stowed the wine and spirits for the ship’s use. In the merchant-service, the stowage consists, besides the ballast, of casks, cases, bales, boxes, &c. which are all carefully wedged off from the bottom, sides, pump well, &c. and great attention paid that the most weighty materials are stowed nearest to the center of gravity, or bearing of the ship; and higher or lower in the hold agreeably to the form of the vessel. A full low built vessel requires them to be stowed high up, that the center of gravity may be raised, to keep her from rolling away her masts, and from being too stiff and laboursome; as, on the contrary, a narrow high-built vessel requires the most weighty materials to be stowed low down, nearest the kelson, that the center of gravity may be kept low, to enable her to carry sail, and to prevent her oversetting. By the 19th. Geo II. it is enacted, that if, after June 1, 1746, any master or owner, or any person acting as master of any ship or other vessel whatsoever, shall cast, throw out, or unlade, or if, there shall be thrown out, &c. of any vessel, being within any haven, port, road, channel, or navigable river, within England, any ballast, rubbish, gravel, earth, stone, wreck, or filth, but only upon the land, where the tide or water never flows or runs; any one or more justices for the county or place where or near which the offence shall be committed, upon the information thereof, shall summon, or issue his warrant for bringing, the master or owner of the vessel, or other person acting as such, before him, and, upon appearance or default, shall proceed to examine the matter of fact, and upon proof made thereof, either by confession of the party, or on view of the justice, or upon the oath of one or more creditable witnesses, he shall convict the said master, &c. and fine him at his discretion for every such offence any sum not exceeding 5l. nor under 50s. &c. and for want of sufficient distress, the justice is to commit the master, or person acting as such, and convicted as aforesaid, to the common goal or house of correction, for the space of two months, or until payment of the penalties. |
Besides the above general act relating to ballast, there are the 6. Geo. II. c. 29 and the 32. Geo. II. which regulate the ballasting of merchant-vessels in the River Thames, placing it under the direction of the Corporation of Trinity-house. MANNER of GETTING on BOARD and STOWING the ANCHORS and CABLES.
ANCHORS though they bear different names on board of ships in the royal navy, as sheet, best bower, small bower, and spare, are of the same weight. The stream and kedge anchors are smaller, and grapnels are for boats. Ships of 110 to, 100, 98, and 90 guns, have seven anchors; from 80 to 20 guns inclusive, 6 anchors; ships of 300 tons, and sloops, have 5; and brigs and cutters 3 anchors. In fitting out ships, the anchors are brought in craft near the bows, being most convenient to the hawse-holes, through which the cables pass to be clenched. The bower anchors are first catted; which is performed by hooking the hook of the cat-block into the ring of the anchor, and bowsing upon the fall that leads in through a snatch-block on the forecastle; the cat-falls being previously reeved through the sheaves of the cat-head and cat-block, keeping the hook of the cat-block downwards, and its point inwards. They are then fished, by means of the half-davit, pendent and tackle, thus: The davit is first stopped in the channel on the side wanted, and supported by guys: the masthead guy goes over the end of the davit, with an eye. The other end fastens round the fore-masthead, with a round turn and two half hitches. The foremost guy goes over the end of the davit, the other end fastens round the cathead, with two half hitches, and securely stopt. The after guy goes over the end of the davit, and makes fast with two half-hitches, through an eye-bolt in the after part of the fore channel. At the outer end of the davit is hung, by its strap, a large single block; through which is reeved the pendent, with a large iron hook spliced in the lower end, to hook the anchor within the flukes; then, to the inner end of the pendent, is made fast a tackle, by thrusting a toggle through an eye in the blockstrap; after that has passed through an eye in the pendent, the other block of the tackle is hooked in an eye-bolt in the fore part of the quarter-deck; the effort of the tackle is communicated to the hook, by means of the pendent, by men’s bowsing on the tackle-fall. Thus the flukes of the anchor are raised and placed on the gunwale, where it is made fast by the shank-painter chain. That the flukes may lie level, the stock is bowsed upon by the anchor-stock tackle, the double block of which is hooked to a selvagee, fastened round the stock of the anchor under the first hoop, and connected by its fall to a single block, hooked to a selvagee fastened round the laniard of the main stay: the fall leads in upon the forecastle. The best bower is then placed forward near the bows on the starboard side; the small bower near the bows on the larboard side, a little abaft their respective catheads; and are secured by their stoppers, from the catheads and shank-painters. The stopper has one end clinched round the cathead; the other end passes through the ring of the anchor, returns upwards, and leads over a large thumb cleat bolted to the cathead, and is made fast with several turns, and the end hitched round the head-rail and timber-head, on the fore side of the cathead. The shank-painter hangs the shank and fluke of the anchor to the ship’s side outboard; and when stowed, the shank-painter is passed under the inner fluke round the shank of the anchor, and made fast with two or three turns, and the end stopt round timber-heads on the forecastle. With these two bower anchors ships are generally moored when lying in a tide’s way or in a fleet. |
The sheet and spare anchors are hoisted by runners and tackles, main-stay and yard tackles, and are stowed securely with stock and bill lashings at the after part of the fore shrouds, before the chess-trees on each side of the ship, with one of their arms resting on a chock, bolted to the gunwale; the stock being bowsed-to by the anchor-stock tackle. The sheet anchor is stowed on the larboard side, and is the first resource in a gale of wind, after parting with either of the bowers; for which reason, when in port, the sheet cable is kept bent, and the anchor is over the side, suspended by the stopper and shank-painter, ready for cutting away in case of necessity. The spare anchor is stowed on the starboard side, and is seldom used, but when one of the others is lost. The stream anchor is stowed on the spare anchor; and, when used, it is sent in the long-boat or launch, with its cable bent, and let go at any particular spot, either for steadying the ship, when riding by only one bower, or to assist a ship when in shore, or to warp her, &c. The kedge is stowed on the stream and spare anchors, and is frequently used to stop a ship for a tide in little winds; but, if the wind is too powerful for the kedge, the stream anchor is substituted. The kedge is sometimes used in moderate weather, to warp the ship so as to shift her birth. The cables also are brought in craft alongside; and, should they be new from the rope-walk, let them be coiled down in the craft, the same way they are to be coiled on board. It is recommended to merchant-ships, especially of the smaller size, that their cables should be coiled the way they bit, or the way they run round the windlass; and their tiers should be on the side opposite to that on which they lead. But this practice cannot be approved of for the royal navy, nor is it indeed there adopted; because, when heaving in upon one cable, and veering out upon another, the cables, by being crossed, are apt to foul in the hatchway. The best bower, which is mostly the working cable, should lead foremost up the hatchway on the starboard side; then the small bower on the larboard side; and, afore the latter, the sheet; which, being the least used, can be triced close round the fore part of the hatchway, out of the way. A cable generally grinds or kinks from more turns being forced into it by the coiling, than it had when first made; and the only way to get rid of those grinds or kinks, is to coil the cable across the hatchway, from side to side, in large fakes, with the sun; then take the upper end through the coil, and coil the cable down in the tier the way required. By this means, as many turns will be taken out of the cable, as there are fakes coiled round the hatchway. It should be a rule in coiling cables, never to lay out near the hatchway, but to keep that part of the tier as low as possible, that the bends may have sufficient room to upset. Were all store cables first coiled down from the rope walk against the sun, they would be better adapted to coil on either side of the ship; for a cable coiled against the sun will more easily reverse, and have less grinds or kinks in it than a cable coiled with the sun. Anchors (except when at sea) should always have a cable clinched to the ring ready for letting go; and a buoy rope with a buoy. To CLINCH A CABLE; run it through the hawse-hole and the ring of the anchor, three or four fathoms in length; then haul the bight up in the head, and pass the end of the cable over the bight, and through the ring, between it and its own part: then pass the cable bends, and cross them with strands, well greased, one at the end, and the other about one foot from the end; and be careful not to form the clinch larger than the ring of the anchor. From the MOORINGS a ship, when fitted, removes, in order to take in her guns and proceed to sea; but, before she finally sets sail, she generally comes to anchor, and is moored once with her own anchors and cables, which will be treated of hereafter. At present it is sufficient to give the following caution at |
GETTING UNDERWAY from RIVER MOORINGS.
If it be in a tideway and with a leading wind, so that the ship can stem the tide; let it be a rule, when the tide serves, to get underway, and sail against the flood; which gives time to clear a ship of her moorings, and affords a more powerful effect to the helm, to steer the vessel clear of other ships and any particular danger. PREPARATIONS necessary to be made FOR ANCHORING.
On approaching an anchorage, the anchor and buoy are got clear, and a range of cable stretched along the deck suitable to the depth of water. Care should be taken, that nothing is in the way to check the cable, or stop its running out: then, at a proper distance, a turn is taken round the bits with the cable, thus: First pass the cable from the anchor underneath the cross-piece, then take up a bight of the cable abaft the bits, and throw it over the bit-head. The end of the cable is clinched round the orlop beams in the royal navy, and round the main-mast in the merchant service. It is necessary to have water near the bits to prevent its firing by the friction. Stoppers and ring ropes of all kinds should be ready for use. The stock lashing being cast off, and nothing but the anchor stopper and shank painter retaining the anchor, men are stationed to stand by them, and let go at the moment ordered. To secure the cable when out, DECK STOPPERS are thus previously prepared: they are turned into the ring bolts on the deck, round a large iron thimble, and fastened with a throat and end seizing. Each stopper has a laniard spliced round the head, under the knot, by which several turns are taken round the cable, and the end stopt. Besides the deck stoppers, others are used as an additional security to the cable; such are the bit stoppers, &c. BIT STOPPERS. Each stopper is reeved through a hole in the standard knee, against the fore part of the riding-bits, and is turned in or spliced. It has a laniard spliced round the head, under the knot. When used, several turns are taken with the laniard round the cable, and the end stopt. It is to check the cable in bringing up the ship. Another bit stopper much approved of, is about four fathoms long, and tailed out like a nipper at one end, and knotted at the other. Let this stopper be rove through the hole in the standard knee. To pass it, let it be held aft, inside, over the cable, and under the bits, outside the cable; then worm it round the cable before the bits. Then, as the cable runs out and it is required to check the ship, haul tight the worming; and, by the cables drawing forward, it will tighten the stopper, and bend the cable so close to the bits as effectually to bring the ship up. This stopper is not likely to jamb, Therefore is extremely well calculated for bringing a ship up with ease; as, by slacking, and hauling tight the worming, the cable may be suffered to run out, or be checked at pleasure. In heaving up in a heavy sea, when, by a sudden pitch of the ship, the messenger or nippers give way, this kind of stopper will be found extremely serviceable; for, upon these occasions, this stopper may be always passed ready, and the bight triced up abaft the bits, with a rope-yarn clear of the cable. |
Another bit stopper, made with a large eye, that it may be thrown over the bit head, and shifted over from side to side, is also much approved of. DOG STOPPERS. One end is clenched round the main-mast, and the other end wormed in the cuntlines of the cable, and stopt in several places; then brought back with several turns over its own part, and the end stopt. It is of little service, unless it be long enough to clap on above the coamings. WING STOPPERS. One end is clenched round the orlop beams in the wings, and the other end is clapt on as the dog stopper. RING ROPES are occasionally made fast to the ring bolts in the deck and to the cable, by passing the ends through the ring of the bolt, and through the bight, then clapt on the cable with cross turns, and the ends stopt. Ring ropes may be better single than double; they are passed with less confusion of turns. To pass a single ring rope, and have it in readiness to check upon veering away the cable, take also three slack turns through the ring bolt and round the cable, one before the other, and hold up the parts fair; then take as many slack turns of worming round the cable, before the ring, and they held up fair, leaving sufficient room for the cable to pass through. When the cable is to be checked, haul tight the worming; and by the cables running out, it will readily draw the turns tight through the ring, and bind the cable so close to the ring, as to prove an excellent stopper. Ring ropes are similar to the laniards of stoppers, to check the cable when freshening the hawse, or to add security to the stoppers in a heavy sea. LENGTHENING OF CABLES. Cables are lengthened by splicing one to the end of the other, thus: The closest and best method is to put the ends in twice each way; then, to pick out the strands, and worm part of them round the cable, and taper away the rest; which should be closely marled down, and a good throat and end seizing clapt on, of six-thread ratline. The strands of the best bower and stream cable, had better be pointed, that these cables may be more quickly spliced and unspliced, in cases of necessity. TO PREVENT CABLES FROM CHAFING by friction in the hawse, and against the stem or cutwater, they are rounded or served thus: They should be served against the lay. The most expeditious way of clapping on rounding is with a top, here room to work it will admit; otherwise it must be beaten on with mallets; and care taken to stop the service with spun-yarn at every six or eight turns. Mooring services are clapped on about fifteen fathoms from the end or cable splice. Large vessels should have twelve or fourteen fathoms of service, half of it rounded and the rest plaited and keckled. Upon the best bower or working cable, there should be a short service of eight or ten fathoms at the half-cable. Mats of the width of the cable’s circumference, and about three fathoms long, are very convenient to have ready to lace on the cable with expedition, in cases of necessity, in the way of the hawse or cutwater. The best service to prevent a cable’s chafing is cut from a tanned horse hide, big enough to wrap two or three times round the cable. The method of putting it on is, first to parcel the cable with two or three turns of old canvas, the length of the leather service; which, if too stiff to put on, only requires dipping in water and beating, which makes it soft and pliable: then pass it tight and smooth round the canvas, and stop it on with sennit or three-yarn knittles, well greasing them, and the service, before veering it into the hawse-hole. Avoid raising the surface of the leather by knittles, &c. underneath the canvas. |
OF COMING to ANCHOR.
A ship ought always, unless under some particular circumstances, to be brought to anchor under an easy sail, such as the three topsails, jib, or fore topmast staysail, and sometimes the mizen, according as the vessel has more or less inclination to fall off or come to the wind. There are, no doubt, cases when more sail may be required; but they are exceptions to and do not destroy the general principle. Nor should an anchor ever be dropt to leeward of the place you mean to bring up in; because that would often occasion a necessity of casting two anchors at once, for fear of dropping still more to leeward. When the wind is so violent as to bring the anchor home, and make the vessel drive, the cable is veered away; and, in veering away, the turns of the stopper laniards are slackened, and a portion of the cable suffered to go out of the hawse, to let the vessel further a-stern of her anchor; in which situation she bears less strain on the flukes, and is less liable to drag the anchor; for, the more cable is out, the flukes become deeper buried, and the ship rides in greater safety. In letting go an anchor, great care should be taken that the water be not so shoal as to endanger the ship hurting herself upon it, and that the anchor be not fouled by the cable getting about the fluke or stock. Nor should the water be too deep, because the cable, when out, should approach as near as possible to an horizontal direction. Indeed, this principle is so true, that three cables spliced together, an end of each other, are kept bent to the best bower anchor, to be used in cases of necessity; and it is found, that one good anchor, with a long range of cable, is a safer anchorage than two anchors with short cables. However, when the ship has not room to drive, and, if the night be dark, let fall a second anchor under foot, with a range of cable above the deck. At all events, the deep sea lead should be thrown over the gunwale, and the line frequently handled, to be certain that the ship does not drive. In hard and rocky bottoms, where anchors cannot have much hold, cables are chafed and cut to pieces. When necessitated to anchor in such places, a chain should be run up the cable from the ring of the anchor to a certain distance, to secure it from danger. When a chain is not to be had, (although the top chains may serve) empty casks well bunged are good substitutes, slung and fastened to the cable at equal distances, to support and keep it from the bottom. When ground is soft and oozy, and anchors will not hold securely, but come home with little wind, it is common to cover the flukes, with a broad triangular piece of plank, much larger than the fluke. Sometimes the anchor is backed, or retained, by carrying out the stream, or kedge, a-head of the anchor the ship usually rides by. In this situation, the bower anchor is confined by the stream, or kedge, in the same manner as the ship is restrained by the bower anchor. In preparing to come to anchor, when the wind is not violent, the topsails ought always to be clued up at the mast heads; that is, let go the sheets and haul the clue lines and bunt lines close up; lower away the topsails and take in the slack of the braces as the yards come down. In this manner you run less danger of spliting and tearing the sails than by any other method. In all operations hereafter treated of, it should be observed, that whether the wind is moderate or blows fresh, it makes this only difference, viz. The velocity of the ship’s movements, in the latter case, being considerably increased, the sails will require an earlier diminution, to stop the headway; and that of course less time in general is taken up in performing every operation. |
TO ANCHOR IN FINE WEATHER, IN A PLACE WHERE YOU WILL RIDE HEAD TO WIND, BEING CLOSE HAULED.
BEING under the three topsails, fore-topmast stay-sail, and mizen, stand on until you are within about two ships lengths of the place where you mean to drop your anchor; then put the helm a-lee, and haul down the fore-topmast stay-sail. As soon as the topsails shiver, clue them up briskly, before you lower; except the mizen topsail, which is to be laid to the mast, and the mizen sheet hauled flat aft, the instant the ship begins to have stern-way, by reason of the wind being a-head. Then shift the helm to windward, and let go the anchor, veering away the cable, to give it time to settle in the ground, until the vessel falls off, when she is to be checked, to bring her head to the wind. When that is done, right the helm, and haul up the mizen. DEMONSTRATION.
THE ship is hove up in the wind by hauling down the fore-topmast stay-sail (§ 31.), when nearly two ships lengths from the spot where the anchor is to be dropped, because the head-way is sufficient to shoot her that distance; and as, by this movement, the ship is generally bound to stop a little to windward of the place where you mean to bring up, you wait till she begins to go a-stern a little before you let go the anchor, and the helm is at the same time shifted hard over the other way (§ 58.) to moderate the ship’s falling off when she is head to the wind. The topsails are clued up as soon as they begin to shiver, not only because it can at that time be done easily, since they come in of themselves as they lower; but because, if delayed longer, the stern-way would become too rapid, since the sails would be all a-back, and would soon drive the ship to leeward of her intended anchorage. Besides, the celerity of her falling off would be such, as to cause her to drag the anchor before it had got a proper hold of the ground; and that is the reason why the cable is veered away in order to give the anchor time to sink into the bottom by its weight. The mizen topsail is braced perpendicular to the keel; because, in that situation, the ship is impelled (§ 36.) a-stern exactly in the direction of her keel. The mizen sheet is hauled flat aft, to bring the ship’s head sooner to the wind (§ 40.); and, as soon as she arrives at that point, that sail shivers; in which case it is immediately brailed up, as being no longer of use. The helm is righted, having no longer any power; since the vessel is now brought up, and all the sails are furled, except the mizen topsail, which is flat a-back to the mast, to keep the ship steady at her anchor. TO ANCHOR IN FINE WEATHER IN A PLACE WHERE YOU WILL RIDE HEAD TO WIND, THE WIND BEING LARGE.
IF you have the wind large, whether on the beam, or more aft, the operation is still the same, only hauling up a little sooner to keep to windward, because it is in your power to drift as much as you think requisite, and because the ship will be entirely stopped as soon as all her sails begin to catch a-back, and you will have done cluing them up when they begin to shake. The mizen topsail is next to be heaved to the mast, the helm put a-weather (§ 58.), and the anchor let go, as soon as the headway ceases: then, after giving her a sufficiency of cable, bring the ship up. If she has been going large, she will not range precisely head to wind, since her headway ceases as soon as the sails are taken |
a-back, and the effort of the wind acts on all the rigging of the ship to impel her both a-stern and to leeward, which is indeed augmenting the effect of the rudder, as the helm is a-weather to bring the vessel to the wind (§ 58.): but, as the power of the wind is very great to pay the ship’s head off, it balances wholly or partly (according as the ship goes a-stern with more or less velocity) the effort of the rudder and that of the mizen: thus she drifts, and remains as it were lying-to with all her sails a-back. This is the reason why we keep a little to windward, and let go the anchor, to bring the ship head to wind at the proper time; which she will do the more readily as she is withheld forward only by the cable, while the wind on her side forces her to leeward. TO ANCHOR IN FINE WEATHER IN A PLACE WHERE YOU ARE TO RIDE HEAD TO THE STREAM AND WIND, THE WIND BEING LARGE.
IF you are obliged to ride with the head to the stream, you must, when it comes from to windward, put the helm a-lee in setting the mizen, then clue up all the sails; and, when the ship’s head is right in the direction of the stream, let go the anchor, provided she has quite lost her headway; for, else, you would get foul of the anchor stock by running over it. This must never be neglected, unless you find yourself under the necessity to bring up in any situation in which you may happen to be, which is almost always the case when you are taken too short to have time to stop the vessel: a reason why there is often a necessity of casting a second anchor, which generally catches the ground by assistance of the first, which has begun to diminish the velocity of the ship; and as many of the sails are to be hauled down as you can, and as quick as possible. TO ANCHOR IN FINE WEATHER IN A PLACE WHERE YOU WILL RIDE HEAD TO THE STREAM, WHICH COMES FROM LEEWARD, THE WIND BEING LARGE.
When the current comes from to leeward, you must keep the ship away till her head comes to the set of the stream, and take in all the sails, to diminish as speedily as possible her head-way, which always continues of itself long enough when the wind is aft or very large; and when the ship is stopped by the effort of the water, let go the anchor without waiting for the vessel gathering stem-way, if the current is rapid; and, in this case, as well as all those wherein there is a sea, or blowing fresh, the ship requires a great length of cable. TO COME TO AN ANCHOR WITH THE WIND AFT.
FIRST hand the main topsail, and then lower the fore topsail down on the cap; and, when you are within a reasonable distance of the place where you mean to drop anchor, (which distance is to be judged of from the readiness of the ship to obey the helm, and from her velocity,) the tiller may be put either one way or the other (§ 50.), the fore topsail and fore topmast staysail clued up and taken in, the mizen topsail braced sharp up, and the mizen sheet hauled flat aft. When the ship ranges close to the wind, she is, as it were, lying-to under the mizen and mizen topsails, with the last mentioned sail full, or a-back, according as you may have occasion to shoot a-head or drop a-stern; |
so that, if you are too much to windward of the spot where you mean to bring to, you drift till you arrive at it: if you are precisely in the proper birth, you let go the anchor in lowering down the mizen topsail, which is to be furled as soon as the vessel is brought up; then the ship will come head to wind by the power of the mizen, which must be brailed up as soon as it shakes. DEMONSTRATION.
THE main topsail is taken in, and the fore topsail lowered down, to diminish the great velocity which a ship commonly has when the wind is aft, in order to estimate the distance with greater precission, and to have her movements more under command. When you think yourself at the necessary distance the ship requires to stop close hauled, at the place you wish to anchor, you put the helm on board one way or the other, (§ 50.); you brace sharp the mizen topsail for the tack you haul upon (§ 41.), and haul the mizen out to bring the ship rapidly to the wind (§ 40). In the same moment, the fore topsail is to be clued up and handed, and the fore topmast staysail hauled down, because they oppose the movement of the ship (§ 31, § 32, § 33.) as she is coming to. When you are close to the wind, the anchor is let go, if you are in the birth you wish: If too far to windward, you can drift, keeping the mizen topsail full; and, when you are to windward, should you find yourself too far a-head, lay the mizen topsail a-back, to go astern (§ 44.) putting at the same time the helm a-weather (§ 58). When the vessel has drifted sufficiently, let go the anchor, and furl the mizen topsail; because the cable might be injured, should it blow fresh: then the ship will soon range head to wind, though the mizen be still out (§ 40.) and, when that is attained, the mizen is brailed up to prevent the ship sheering; and the helm is righted for the same reason. In some cases you are obliged to come to an anchor with the wind aft, standing end on, because there is not always a space necessary to deaden the ship’s way. In this situation the sails are to be taken in as soon as possible, in order to lessen the velocity of the ship. When come to your birth, let go the anchor, and veer away the cable plentifully, that the anchor may have time to take the ground; then begin to check her gently, veering still more cable as the ring ropes or stoppers, placed on it before-hand, break away; for they should be permitted to break, in order that you may not be exposed to drag your anchor, by bringing the vessel up at once. SCUDDING UNDER A FORE SAIL, TO COME TO AN ANCHOR.
THE foresail must be clued up when at some distance from your birth, and some part of the way, run under bare poles. When near enough to sheer to the wind, you execute it by putting the helm hard a-lee; and, as soon as the ship is come to, let go the anchor, giving her a large scope of cable, and observing to check her handsomely, in order to make her ride head to wind: as stopping her at first too short might very well endanger her cable or anchor. Should the first not bring her up, a second must be let go. DEMONSTRATION.
AS you cannot run for an anchorage under a foresail, unless before the wind, or very free, you are necessarily obliged to furl that sail at a great distance; because, in that position, the velocity of the ship will, by the violence of the wind, be but too much kept up, so as to make you run the rest of the way, |
which may perhaps be a quarter or half a league, under bare poles, the wind being nearly aft. If you were obliged to run at that distance close hauled, you would never reach your birth, should the foresail even be set; because, the ship would be laid-to, as was shewn before. You put your helm over to sheer to windward when you think you are at the necessary distance, that you may have time to deaden the ship’s head-way: and as, when she stops coming to, her head-way ceases, you let go the anchor, and veer away a great extent of cable; because, when it blows hard, there is commonly a great swell, and the pitching motion it gives to the ship, joined to the effort of the wind on the rigging, would bring home the anchor. You are therefore obliged to veer away a great length of cable, to give the anchor time to settle, and to cause the cable to make a very acute angle with the ground, by which the strain is much reduced. TO ANCHOR WITH A SPRING, IN ORDER TO PRESENT THE VESSEL’S SIDE TO A PLACE OR SHIP YOU WISH TO CANNONADE.
THIS is executed when you know that the wind or current will bring your head, when at anchor, towards the object you mean to attack: for, should the wind or tide bring your broad-side to bear on the object you mean to cannonade, the spring would only be a precaution, to get under way more quickly in case you were obliged to retreat; or in case the wind or tide should shift. Get a large snatch-block in the aftermost port, on the same side you wish to present to the wind or current, and on the same side with the anchor and cable with which you mean to bring up; then, through the block, reeve a hawser, the end of which is to be clinched to the ring of the anchor you mean to let go; the other part is brought to the capstern, with necessary ranges of the cable and hawser on deck. That done, and the ship being arrived at the birth, you are to deaden her way according to circumstances: you let go the anchor, and veer away enough cable and hawser, now a little more of the one, and then a little more of the other, according as you wish to present more head or stern; which you can do by heaving on the spring, or, what is the same, veering away more cable; but should you find it requisite to shift your position, you have only to veer out more of the hawser. TO COME TO AN ANCHOR IN ROADS THAT ARE OFTEN CROWDED WITH SHIPS, AND TO LEAVE CLEAR BIRTHS FOR OTHERS.
THE best anchoring births in these places are mostly known by marks, and of course are occupied by the first ships. In a tide or trade-wind road-stead, the next ship that comes should not anchor right a-head or a-stern of the first if and so as to lie in the other’s hawse, but should come-to on the bow and quarter, at a sufficient distance to prevent other ships from coming between, and in a slanting direction from the tide or wind. This might contribute to the safety of ships when it blows strong upon a lee-tide or in strong sea breezes, as each single ship may then veer away what cable necessary, and keep clear of the other ship’s hawse a-stern; or, in case of driving or casting, they have a better chance of keeping clear of each other. A good anchoring birth in a crowded road-stead is obtained by first running down through the middle of the fleet, and taking notice where a good birth is left vacant by some ship that has sailed |
from the middle of the fleet; then steer out from among the ships, and turn to windward so far, as to give time to take in and furl all the sails, and run down before the wind amongst the ships with out any sail, and let go the anchor at the intended birth. TO COME TO AN ANCHOR WITH THE WIND ACROSS THE TIDE.
THE ship should if possible, be put upon the tack that stems against the tide when the anchor is let go; and, if it be designed to continue at a single anchor, in order to keep it clear, sheer the ship and keep her to leeward of the anchor, by keeping the helm a-weather and the fore topmast staysail set, with the sheet to windward. Much benefit may result from letting go the anchor-stemming against the tide, especially with a rapid tide, for it gives an opportunity to observe, at what rate the ship drives a-stern, so as to judge whether it may not be necessary to keep sail set, in order to bring the ship up to ride easy in a rapid tide, and to keep her clear of shoals, &c. a-stern. TO COME TO AN ANCHOR WHEN THE WIND IS RIGHT AGAINST THE TIDE, THE SHIP DRIVING WITH THE STRENGTH OF THE TIDE AGAINT THE WIND.
SHOOT the ship a-head of her anchor, or sheer her clear of it, upon the same tack, as she is meant to shoot upon, the next tide, always endeavouring to keep the ship, in swinging with the tide, on one side of the anchor, to clear it. Suppose that the ship, driving to windward, has got to an anchoring birth, or that the tide is so far spent that she will drive no further to windward, and must come to an anchor on the starboard tack. In letting go the anchor, the ship should be shot a-head of it, and kept a-head with the helm a-weather, the yards braced full with the larboard braces, the fore topmast stay-sail and mizen set full, till the windward tide is done; then she falls to leeward and rides windroad, with the wind and anchor right a-head in which position she will lie clear of the anchor till the next windward tide. TO COME TO AN ANCHOR WITHOUT TENDING.
IF it happens that a ship is to be brought up in a place where there is not sufficient room to tend her, reduce her head-way as much as possible, before she comes to her anchoring birth, so that a less scope of cable will bring her up. DESCRIPTION OF A FLOATING ANCHOR TO RIDE A VESSEL BY IN A GALE OF WIND.
THIS simple machine is made to dive beneath the swell of the sea, and retain the vessel where there may be no other anchorage. It consists of two flat bars of iron, each in length half the breadth of the midship beam of the vessel for which it is used, and rivetted together in the middle by an iron saucer-headed bolt, clenched at its point, that they may be swung parallel to each other for easy stowage. At each end of the bars is |
a hole for a rope, or swifter, to pass through, which must be hove tight, to extend the bars at right angles. To this swifter is marled a double or fourfold canvas cloth (N° 1.) of the same shape, so as to be on that side of the iron bars nearest the vessel when used. In each bar are two holes, at equal distances from the center; and to these holes the ends of two pieces of rope are fastened: the ropes are seized together in the middle so as to form a crowfoot, having an eye in the center, which is well served with spunyarn, and to this is bent, when the anchor is used a cable or hawser, by which it is made to sink and incline in the water. See the Plate. In the end of one of the bars is fitted an iron ring, to which a buoy is made fast, by a rope about 12 fathoms long, to prevent the anchor from sinking to the bottom. When it is thrown overboard, the cable and a rope made fast to the head of the buoy, are veered away sufficiently to ride the vessel. To get it on board, haul upon the buoy-rope, which will bring it to the water’s surface so as to be easily drawn to the vessel. Have the mizen staysail ready to hoist, to keep the vessel to the wind till the anchor is hauled on board. INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF SHIPS AT SINGLE ANCHOR.
OF SHEERING A SHIP.
IF the side of a ship at anchor is presented to the tide by any means, the water will act upon her two ways; one in the direction of her keel, the other in the direction of her beams; the last will cause her to sheer out to one side of her anchor, which was a-head before. Suppose, for example, the power which presents the ship’s side to the tide to be a spring; from the anchor coming in aft on the starboard side upon heaving in the spring, the ship will sheer over to port, bringing the anchor upon the starboard bow: the more the spring is hove in, the more the ship will go a-head, and over to port, until her side makes an angle with the tide of 45 degrees, as the furthest she can go over from her anchor: for the spring hove in after this will cause the ship to return, and be in the stream of her anchor when she is hove round a broadside to the tide. Now, if the helm is put over to starboard, it will act as the spring, by forcing the ship’s stern to starboard; and thus, by causing the water to act upon her starboard side, the ship will be forced over to port: on the contrary, had the helm been put to port, the larboard side would be presented to the action of the water, and the ship will go over to starboard; but the power of the rudder being according to the strength of the tide, its action lessens upon the rudder, as the ship sheers obliquely to the stream, and cannot produce so great an effect as the spring. |
RIDING AT ANCHOR IN MODERATE WEATHER.
WHEN riding in a tideway with a fresh of wind, the cable should have a short or windward service, of about 45 or 50 fathoms from the manger-board outwards, always sheered to leeward, (not to windward, as thought by some) not with the helm hard down constantly, but more or less so, according to the strength or weakness of the tide. Many ships have sheered their anchors home, driven on board other ships, or on sands near which they rode before the anchor was discovered to have moved from the place where let go. TO BACK A SHIP
WHEN the wind is cross, or nearly off shore, or in the opposite direction, ships will always back by the mizen topsail, assisted if necessary by the mizen staysail. If no mizen topsail, the main topsail is used. In backing, always keep a tight cable to wind the ship that the anchor may be drawn round. If the wind is not sufficient for this purpose the ship must be hove a-peek. OF BRACING THE YARDS.
RIDING with the wind afore the beam, brace the yards forward: if abaft the beam, brace them all a-back. OF RIDING WHEN IN DANGER OF BREAKING THE SHEER.
IF the wind is so far aft that the ship will not back, she must be set a-head; but never attempt to back, if, when the tide ceases, the ship forges a-head, and brings the buoy on the lee quarter. If the wind is far aft and blows fresh, the greatest attention is required; as ships, riding in this situation, often break their sheer and come again to windward of their anchors; to prevent which, the after yards must be braced forward, and the fore yards aft: thus she will be safe, so long as the buoy can be kept on the lee quarter; or, suppose the helm to port, so long as the buoy is on the larboard quarter. With the helm thus, and the wind right aft or nearly so, the starboard main and fore braces should be hauled aft if led aft, and forward if they lead forward. HOW TO MANAGE A SHIP WHEN HER SHEER IS BROKEN.
IF the ship tends to leeward, and the buoy comes on the weather quarter, and she breaks her sheer, brace about the main yard quickly; if she recovers and brings the buoy on the lee or larboard quarter, let the main yard be again braced about; but if she comes to her sheer the other way, by bringing the buoy on her starboard quarter, change the helm and brace the fore yard to. |
OF TENDING TO LEEWARD WHEN THE SHIP MUST BE SET A-HEAD.
When the ship begins to tend to leeward, and the buoy comes on the weather quarter; first brace about the fore yard; and, when the wind comes near the beam, set the fore staysail, and keep it standing until it shivers, then brace all the yards sharp forward, especially if it is likely to blow hard. It sometimes happens that when the fore staysail is set too soon, the ship’s head will pay round off, and she will break her sheer: to prevent this, and to keep the wind broad upon the beam, it will often be necessary to set the mizen staysail also; which should be hauled down as soon as the wind comes before the beam, otherwise the ship’s head will be thrown in the wind too soon. WHEN THE SHIP IS LIKELY TO GO TO WINDWARD WITH A LONG SERVICE OUT.
RIDING leeward tide with more cable than the windward service, and expecting the ship will go to windward of her anchor, begin, as soon as the tide eases, to shorten in the cable. This work is sometimes hard, but very necessary; otherwise the anchor may be fouled by the great length of cable the ship has to draw round, or the cable would be damaged by the bows and cutwater. When a ship rides windward tide, the cable should be keckled from the short service towards the anchor, as far as will prevent its touching the cutwater. When the ship tends to windward, and must be set a-head, hoist the fore staysail as soon as it will stand; and, in moderate weather, the jib also; and, when the buoy comes on the lee quarter, haul down the fore staysail, and jib, if set, brace-to the fore yard, and put the helm a-lee; for, till then, the helm must be kept a-weather, and all the yards full. TO MANAGE IN A STORM.
WHEN a ship rides leeward tide, and the wind increases, give her more cable, otherwise the anchor may start by not doing so in time, and the ship will not easily be brought up again: this is the more necessary when riding in the hawse of another ship. Previously to giving a long service, it is usual to take a weather bit, or a turn of the cable round the windlass end, that, in veering away, the ship may not overpower you. Grease the service, to prevent its chafing in the hawse. If the gale increases, the topmasts should be timely struck, but the fore yard seldom, if ever, should be lowered down, that, in case of parting, the foresail may be always ready. At these times, let there be more people on deck than the usual anchor-watch, that no accident may happen from inattention. |
TO TEND A SHIP FOR A WEATHER TIDE.
A SHIP riding at anchor upon a lee tide, with the wind in the direction of the tide, requires, upon the tide’s setting to windward, to tend clear of her anchor: for this purpose, when the weather tide sets, and brings the wind broad upon either bow, hoist the jib and fore staysail, and brace full the yards to shoot the ship a tight cable from her anchor: then put the helm a-lee, and wait until the buoy comes upon the lee-side: this done, brace-to the head yard, and keep the after yards full to assist the helm. If the buoy bears nearly a-beam, the jib and fore staysail may be hauled down; but, if the wind is fresh, and shoots the ship nearly end-on with the cable, bringing the buoy upon the quarter, keep up the fore staysail; as, in this situation, the ship will be in danger of breaking her sheer against the helm; and the fore staysail will be ready to catch her before she can fall to windward of her anchor. As the weather tide slacks, the ship will gradually fall wind-road; then haul down the fore stay-sail and right the helm: should it blow fresh, let the yards be braced forward, and give the ship sufficient cable. TO TEND A SHIP WITH THE WIND AÂ FEWÂ POINTS ACROSS THE TIDE.
IF a ship riding at anchor upon a lee tide, with the wind two or three points upon the bow, is to be cast for a weather tide; when the tide is done, the ship will become wind-road, and of course must cast with her head to the weather shore. As the lee tide makes and brings the wind on either side, put the helm a-lee, hoist the jib and fore staysail with the sheets to windward, brace aback the head yards, and fill the after yards. When the ship has sheered tight to windward of her anchor, haul down the jib and fore staysail; and as the wind is broad upon the quarter, she will lie quiet the remainder of the tide. As the weather tide slacks, the ship will shoot end-on with the cable, bringing the buoy upon the weather quarter. When the wind is abeam, if it is thought necessary, the jib and fore staysail should be hoisted to force the ship a tight cable from her anchor; and hauled down when they shiver. Should it blow fresh, give the ship sufficient cable before the lee tide makes, and point the yards to the wind. TO TEND A SHIP WITH THE WIND ACROSS THE TIDE.
THE simplest way of tending a ship, is to keep each tide to leeward of her anchor. At each slack water the ship will become wind-road, and as she tends, and brings the wind on either side, put the helm aweather, and hoist the fore staysail with the sheet to windward, to force the ship a tight cable from her anchor. When the tide is set, and the ship upon a proper sheer to leeward of her anchor, the fore staysail may be hauled down. |
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
IF at any time the anchor-watch should wind the ship, or permit her to break her sheer, the anchor should be hove in sight immediately, or on the first opportunity. When lying in a roadstead, the anchor should be hove in sight once a week, though there be no suspicion of its being foul, for sometimes the cable is damaged by sweeping wrecks, or lost anchors, or from rocks or stones. It is often needful to trip the anchor, to take a clearer birth, particularly when any ship brings up too near; but if there is the least suspicion of the ship’s having come near her anchor, it should be sighted the first opportunity. A good roadstead is much better than a bad harbour, and more safe: therefore never leave a good roadstead for the latter, without real necessity, which can only be when you can ride no longer, and have no lee road to fly to. There are roadsteads where an anchor will bury itself, so that the bight of the cable cannot foul it. In such places, where there is room, it is better to lie at single anchor, than to moor. If it is possible, always shoot a ship on the same side of her anchor each tide, to prevent danger from the anchor’s not turning as the ship swings; for the anchor by not turning in the ground endangers fouling the cable round the upper fluke or stock, which will either trip the anchor or damage the cable: and it often happens, when an anchor is tripped out of stiff ground, that it will not take hold a second time, without the upper fluke should cant down; for the quantity of clay sticking to the fluke prevents its setting into the ground again; so the anchor keeps tripping over the surface, and another anchor must be let go before the ship can be brought up. As a ship, by being sheered, presents one bow to the tide, if the wind is against the tide, it must blow upon the opposite quarter. It is not always necessary to use the yards in tending a ship, to shoot her a tight cable from her anchor. In general the jib, fore stay-sail, and main topmast stay-sail, will be sufficient for the purpose. Should the wind shift at any time, it will be necessary to alter the sheer of the ship accordingly. |
ON MOORING.
WHEN a ship is come to anchor in a place where she is intended to remain, prudence dictates that she should be well secured. For this purpose the putting down additional anchors is calculated, and has been denominated MOORING. The various situations of places, settings of tides, &c. occasion the necessity of the following particular directions. When the best bower is gone, and about two cables length is run out, the small bower is let go; and, when that has taken the ground, you heave in one cable’s length upon the best bower, and veer away a cable’s length of the small bower; and thus the ship is kept at an equal distance between both, the one lying to the head, and the other to the stern. In roads where there is much tide, and freshes are expected, ships moor according to the set of the current, one anchor riding to the flood, and the best anchor and cable to the ebb. In roads where there is little or no tide, ships moor according to the set of the most prevailing wind on the coast. It may so happen, according to circumstance and situation, that the vessel must ride by a greater scope on one cable than the other, but still the manner of letting go the anchors is the same. Another method of mooring is, by carrying the last anchor out in a boat to the place appointed, and there letting it go. Steadying or mooring with a kedge is usually done in this manner. OF MOORING WITH TWO, THREE, OR MORE ANCHORS A-HEAD.
THIS is done by letting go the number of anchors necessary, and veering away; this being no ordinary practice, but only adopted in cases of danger, and peculiarity of circumstance; time, place, and situation, must be the only guide to such an operation: as one instance, suppose a ship cannot clear the shore under her lee by sailing, owing to a strong wind and high sea, the only resource is to let go all the anchors to the best advantage. For this purpose, let the cables that are bent be got clear for running. Then furl all the square sails, as quick as possible, and shoot the ship along the shore under the staysails. When the square sails are furled, let go the weathermost anchor, and veer away the cable quickly; then let go the next weathermost, and so on, till all the anchors are gone nearly in a line along the shore: thus when the ship becomes windroad, all the cables may be made to bear an equal strain, and are separated from each other. |
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TO BACK AN ANCHOR.
TO back an anchor, is to let go a small anchor a-head of a large one, to which it is fastened, to partake of the strain, and to serve as a check upon it, should it come home. The backing anchor is carried out in a long boat, to the buoy of the one already down, whose buoy rope is cast off and bent to the cable or hawser of the backing anchor; that done, the boat is rowed farther a-head, till the buoy rope and cable of the backing anchor become tight, when it is let go, the buoy that was taken from the large one being previously bent to it. In this situation, should the large anchor come home, the scope of cable from it to the anchor a-head, participating of the strain communicated to the innermost one, checks its progress, and ensures to the vessel a greater security. Where there is more room to drive without danger, and it blows so hard, that the sea runs too high for boats to work, an anchor is backed by clenching, round that part of the cable next the hawse hole, the end of a cable bent to another anchor on board. This being done, the second anchor is let go under foot; the ship is then suffered to drive, and the cable, by the driving of the ship, becomes tight from the ring of the anchor last down to its own anchor, which, by the driving also, is now become a cable’s length a-head of the former anchor. TO MOOR IN A TIDE’S WAY.
TO bring a ship up at high water, with an intention to moor with the best bower to the ebb, let go the best bower, and bring her up with the cable stoppered, until the ebb makes strong; then veer away two cables; and, if possible, assist her astern with the mizen-topsail. If, when the two cables are out and the ship in the stream of her anchor, it is thought, when moored, she will ride too near any other vessel, sheer her over from that vessel, and let go the small bower anchor; then ship the capstern bars, bring-to the best bower, veer away the small bower, and heave in the best bower to the whole cable service; then bitt and stopper the cables, leaving sufficient service within board, to freshen the hawse. TO MOOR WITH AN OPEN HAWSE TO ANY PARTICULAR QUARTER.
SUPPOSE, for example, the roadstead or river intended to moor the ship in, to lie north and south, (in which direction the anchors are to be laid,) and that her best bower is carried on the larboard side, and it is meant, when moored, the ship shall swing with an open hawse to the eastward. In this case the best bower must be the northern anchor; but, if the hawse had been required to be open when her head was swung to the westward, the best bower must have been the southern anchor. |
OF KEEPING A CLEAR HAWSE.
WHEN a ship is moored, she is often thought to be in such a state of security, that the keeping a clear hawse is too often neglected. If the hawse is clear, the ship must ever swing with her stern to the side on which the headmost cable leads. If, to keep a clear hawse, the ship should swing with her stem to windward, it will be impracticable to get her the right way by any sail that can be set; for, as the tide slackens, she will fall wind-road; and, when the tide sets, it will take her upon the wrong side. However, if the wind continues, she cannot foul her hawse any more, as, at the next tide, the same wind will undo the cross it caused. When the wind is either a-head or a-stern, by the assistance of the mizen topsail or jib, the ship can mostly be made to swing the right way. For example, suppose the wind a-head, or even a little upon the starboard bow, and that the ship’s stern is to swing to starboard: in this case, set the mizen topsail, with the starboard yard arms braced forward, haul up the starboard bowline, and hoist the jib with the sheet to windward; then, before the lee tide is done, put the helm to starboard, to give the ship a sheer, which will be preserved by the position of the sails. At slack water shift the helm: thus, when the tide makes, it will act against the larboard side of the rudder and stern, and very much assist to swing the ship the right way. Again, should the wind be a-stern, and a little upon the wrong quarter, if the helm be attended to, and the mizen topsail braced full the right way, in all probability the ship will swing as wanted. If the helm were only properly attended, it would often save the labour of clearing the hawse. It would be highly necessary, at all times, to have a small anchor and rope ready abaft, to run out and haul the ship round in calm weather. HOW THE WEAKEST MOORINGS MAY BE BEST APPLIED TO HELP A SHIP TO RIDE OUT A STORM.
IT may happen that the small bower cable may be too much worn, or the small moorings known to be too weak, to ride a ship out a storm, when the anchor at the best cable is in danger, or expected to come home. In this case, to make the weak moorings serve for a backing to the best anchor and cable; contrive a traveller, of sufficient sized rope, to go slack round the best cable, without the hawse, and well secure it with rolling hitches seized to the weak moorings, that may be veered away, or let go, as occasion may require; if short of rope to make a proper traveller, a large stopper may be clapt on without the hawse, till the end of the small moorings is fastened round the best bower cable, with a bowline knot open enough to slide along the best cable, until it comes to the ring, which may prove such a sure backing, as to prevent its coming home. When a ship is moored, attention must be paid to her swinging at the turn of tide, or shift of wind, to prevent the cables overlaying each other, or getting a foul hawse, which is prejudicial, as the cables chafe each other, and as the vessel is not in that perfect state of security enjoyed by riding with an open hawse. The explanation of this turn will be better comprehended by a reference to the plate, |
For example: if a ship be moored east and west, and swings to the northward, the cable of the anchor lying to the eastward, is from the hawse-hole on the larboard side, and that to the westward from the hawse-hole on the starboard side; should the wind or tide change, so as to bring the ship to the southward of her anchors, the western anchor will be on the larboard side the vessel, and the eastern anchor on the starboard side. These two cables (the one from out of the larboard hawse-hole, and leading toward the eastward, or starboard of the ship, and that from out of the starboard hawse-hole leading to the westward, or larboard side of the ship) must consequently cross each other; that by which she rode, when making the movement of swinging, remaining above the other. Suppose, in the present case, the ship has swung by the anchor to the western side, it will then be found in the position expressed in the plate, fig. 1. If, in a second change of situation, the ship is observed to turn round the same anchor, and to the westward, the cross will be taken out, and the cables will resume their first disposition, as represented in the plate, fig. 1. If, on the contrary, the cross is not taken out, but she swings to the eastward, the cross will be doubled, and form an elbow, fig. 2; and should the continue to turn westward to the southward, the cables will be again twisted, and form a round turn, as fig. 3, which should be carefully avoided. When two cables are crossed, to take the cross out, the ship must swing to the upper cable, drawing it tight, and by that means slacking the other cable: when the cross is doubled, and becomes an elbow, the cable, which at first was the uppermost, being overlaid by the other, and making a turn, it is always on the first that the ship should make the evolution to take the turn out. On the position to take out the cross in the cables, and prevent their taking a turn, the ship must be swung, making the circuit as on the plate. OF CLEARING THE HAWSE.
THIS can only be attempted when the ship does not ride by the clearing cable. To execute it, bend a fish-hook to the fore-bowline, hook this to the cable the ship is riding by, below the turns in the hawse, and bowse it well up out of the water: then lash the cables together at the turns. If the cable, by which the hawse is cleared, leads on the starboard side, send the larboard fore-top bowline into the hawse-hole under the cable, or under and over, according as the cable to be cleared is either below or above the other, which must be bent about three fathoms within the hawse. Then send in the starboard bowline, which should be bent well in towards the end of the cable, and stopped along the cable at every fathom, and let a hawse rope be bent to the end of the cable. When all the bowlines are fast, unbit the cable, and haul out upon the starboard bowline: let the stops be cut, as the cable comes out of the hawse. When a long bight is out, haul upon the larboard bowline, and trice this bight up to the bowsprit. Should this one bight nor sufficiently expend the cable, that its end may be taken round the other, hang it to the bowsprit, and send down the larboard bowline for a second bight. When the end of the cable is round the other, shift the hawse rope, and haul it in again. The hawse being clear, bitt the cable and unlash it. Should it blow fresh, and the tide run to windward, it will be imprudent to trust only to the lashings, lest the cable should run out end for end. In this case, bend a hawser, with a rolling hitch, to the clearing cable, below the turns in the hawse, and let it be hove tight, as a double security. |
If it is moderate weather and an easy tide, the hawse may be readily cleared, by bowsing the headmost cable well up out of the water, and bending to it a hawser from the hawse below the turns. Then unbit the cable, veer away upon the hawser, and pass the headmost cable round the other until its end is clear; then heave in upon the hawser, take in the cable, and bitt it. Should it come on to blow a gale of wind, when a ship is moored, from that quarter which will oblige her to ride equally by each cable, and the hawse is clear, it will be necessary to splice a second cable to the small bower, and to veer away equally upon both cables: but, should the hawse be foul, and it is expected that the cables will damage each other, bend a hawser below the turns in the hawse to the small bower, which slip, and let the ship swing to the best bower. When the weather moderates, heave in the end of the small bower, and the ship will be moored as before with a clear hawse. OF GETTING UP OR WEIGHING ANCHOR.
PREVIOUSLY to entering upon directions for unmooring and getting under sail, it is necessary to shew the various modes of getting up an anchor, as this operation is often requisite where it is not designed to unmoor; and as it is necessary to know how to overcome the difficulties of getting up an anchor in all cases whatever. TO GET UP AN ANCHOR, IN SHIPS WHICH HAVE A MAIN AND JEER CAPSTERN.
IN large ships which have a main and jeer capstern, and the strain is thought too great for the messenger alone, the viol is used thus; three or four turns are taken round the jeer capstern with one end, so as to leave that side clear on which the cable is coming in; and pass the other end through the viol block, which is lashed round the main mast on the lower deck. It is then carried forward, and passed round the rollers in the manger near the hawse-holes; then brought aft, and spliced to the other end with a short splice, and the ends marled down tight. That side of the viol on which the cable is coming in is fastened to the cable by nippers; and thus the continued efforts of the capstern are conveyed to the cable, until it is hove in. The nippers are clapt on in the manger, from one to two fathoms asunder; and the viol is applied to the midship, or inside of the cable. Nippers are clapt on by taking three or four turns round the viol; four turns round the cable and viol; and then three or four turns round the cable., This method is an exceeding good one, and very suitable to quick heaving; but, when the strain is great, and the cable muddy, the nippers clapt on after this method will not nip sufficiently; and sometimes recourse is had to the following method: Throw sand or ashes upon the cable, and take a long dry nipper; which middle, and pass one half aft, racking |
it in and out round the cable and viol; then worm its end round the viol only. After this, pass the other half in the same manner forward, but worm its end round the cable only, and let each end of the nipper be held on. The advantages of this method are, that, as the strain of the cable lies forward, and that of the viol aft, the nipper will be drawn so tight as effectually to hold the cable till something gives way: Also they can never jamb, for both ends are clear for taking off. Another method, when the strain is great, is, to have nippers with an overhand knot made at one end; and with that end a round turn taken round the cable and viol, leaving three or four feet of the end; then, with the other end, take three or four racking turns, and expend nearly the remainder with turns round the cable and viol, laying the knotted end under and over each of the last turns; the end is then held fast. The men who clap on the nippers are attended by boys, who hold the ends of them; and follow the progression of the cable as it is hove in: and, as the nippers arrive near the main hatchway, they are taken off and carried forward, where they are again clapt on: and so in succession, until the cable is hove in sufficiently to raise the anchor above the water. It is then stoppered round all before the bitts: that is, round the cable and viol. The anchor is then catted, and afterwards fished. To shift the viol for heaving in a second anchor, it must be unspliced, and the turns round the capstern reversed. When the strain is so great as to require other purchases, the top tackles may be used thus: the double block is lashed to the main mast or topsail sheet bitts, the treble block is lashed on the cable, and the fall brought to the capstern. If the top tackle falls are thought insufficient, any hawser may be used that will reeve through the blocks. TO GET UP AN ANCHOR IN SHIPS WHICH HAVE NOT A JEER CAPSTERN.
SHIPS without a jeer capstern have no viol, but heave in their cables by the messenger, which has an eye spliced in each end; one of which ends is passed with three or four turns round the capstern on the upper deck, and the other end is passed forward round the rollers, at the forepart of the manger; then brought aft to the other end, and lashed thus: several turns are passed through the eyes crossing each other in the middle, then a half hitch is taken round the parts, and the ends stopped with spunyarn. The remainder of the operation is performed as by the viol, with this exception, the messenger is applied to the outside of the cable; and, when the nippers are insufficient, the messenger may be hitched thus: the bight of the messenger is fastened round the cable at the manger with a rolling hitch, and the bight seized round the cable before the hitch: This practice is by no means so good as the others. When getting under way in a sea gale, a viol is better than a messenger, as the sending of the ship carries all the strain to the main capstern, and endangers the men at the bars; whereas, with a viol, the strain is taken to the viol block, and the men at the fore jeer capstern heave in security. TO GET UP A SECOND ANCHOR.
SUPPOSE, by the former methods, that the starboard anchor is gotten up, and that the cable of the second anchor enters the larboard hawse-hole, the operation of getting up the second anchor |
is the same, observing only, that the messenger must be shifted, and the turns on the capstern reversed, to change the disposition and side: and the men, who before held on the larboard side in the first operation, will hold on the starboard side now: the motion of the capstern is performed the contrary way, and the cable on the larboard side is fixed and hove in. TO GET UP AN ANCHOR IN MERCHANT-SHIP.
Most merchant-ships and small vessels heave up their anchors by a windlass; round which are taken three turns of the cable, and held on by hand, or by a jigger, thus: The end of the rope which has the sheave is passed round the cable, with a round turn, close to the windlass, the leading part of the rope coming over the sheave, and stretched aft, by means of the fall passing through the jigger block; the standing part of the fall is made fast round a stantion, at the fore part of the quarter deck, and the leading part is bowsed upon, which jambs the turns taken round the cable; and, when the jigger arrives abreast of the hatchway, it constantly removes forward, and the cable is jambed by a handspeck at the windlass, until the jigger is refixed. TO WEIGH AN ANCHOR WITH THE LONG BOAT.
THIS is done, by taking the long boat to the buoy of the anchor, and putting the buoy rope over the davit of the long boat, and a tackle on the buoy rope; by which, with the assistance of men on the fall, the anchor is weighed out of the ground. This being accomplished, the cable is hove in on-board; the buoy rope and tackle being second in the boat, they-approach the ship as the cable is hove in, and the anchor catted and stowed. Small anchors and grapnels are got up by the davit, hauling upon the cable or grapnel rope by hand. TO WEIGH AN ANCHOR BY UNDER-RUNNING.
THIS is by placing the cable over the davit-head, and under-running it, till it is nearly a-peek, when it is tripped by means of tackles as before by the buoy rope. This method is troublesome, and is only adopted when the buoy is gone, and a ship cannot get near her anchor for want of water. OF CUTTING OR SLIPPING THE CABLE TO MAKE SAIL.
THIS is a quick but very expensive method, and practised but in cases of the greater necessity; such as when the anchor is hooked to rocks, and cannot be purchased; in bad weather; when at anchor on a lee shore and in danger of being embayed; or when compelled to fly from or pursue an enemy. The cable is cut by an axe at the hawse-holes or at the bits. Slipping the cable, if time |
will permit, (which prevents losing the anchor and cable, and is more prudent than cutting,) is by letting the cable run out end for end. Observing however before it is either cut or slipped to pass a spare buoy rope in the hawse-hole, and fasten it near the end with a rolling hitch, worm the end in the cuntline and stop it, that it may be easily regained. TO SWEEP AN ANCHOR.
TO sweep an anchor, is seeking at the bottom for one lost, by means of a rope called a sweep. This rope has its two ends made fast to two boats abreast of each other, at a small distance asunder. On the bight of the sweep is fixed a weight of shot, &c. to keep it at the bottom. The two boats row on toward the place where the anchor is supposed to be, and consequently draw along the sweep; which, taking the bottom, hooks or entangles itself with the object of their search. The boats then row across each other twice, so as to take a round turn with the sweep, which being a hawser, both parts are brought into the hawse-hole, and to the capstern; (or if small to the long boat;) and hove in upon as before. TO UNMOOR.
SHOULD the ship to be unmoored have her best bower to the ebb, let her be unmoored upon the ebb tide: but, if there were a necessity to unmoor upon the flood, the stream cable must be spliced to the small bower, supposing the small bower has but one cable. To unmoor upon the ebb, when it has made strong, veer away the best bower, bring to and heave in the small bower, and keep veering away the bell, till the small bower is up-and-down; then stopper the best bower. The small bower being up, cat the anchor, shift the messenger, bring-to the best bower, and heave in to the whole or half-cable service, as may be thought necessary, then bit the cable, and fish the small bower anchor. Should a ship be under the necessity of unmooring upon a windward tide with a strong wind, it will be very difficult and dangerous to take up the sternmost anchor. In this case, if there be no ships in the way, the headmost anchor may be the first taken up with safety, and the sternmost cable be hove in towards slack water, |
OF GETTING UNDER SAIL.
SOME general observations relative to getting under sail are very necessary to be attended to. Whenever a ship is preparing to get under sail, the topsail yards ought to be at the mast-head, and her sails stopped with rope yarns. And indeed all persons that pique themselves on rapid execution ought to observe this precaution when the wind is not too powerful. When the tide takes a ship on the beam, and she is to cast the other way, it is evident that the tiller in the first instant must be put on the side the current runs from, because the rudder will be in such a situation as to receive very obliquely the impulse of the fluid, and consequently will but little oppose the ship’s falling off, provided the ship’s velocity does not exceed that of the current. When in a situation where it is indifferent whether the ship be cast one way or the other, always let it be to leeward of the anchor, that there may be no risk of its getting foul of the cutwater. It happens sometimes, in getting under sail, that you are obliged to heave the anchor up to leeward; which often requires a dangerous strain to the capstern; because the ship, driving to leeward as soon as the anchor is a-weigh, causes the cable to girt against the lee bow, and the stock of the anchor is very apt to catch the cutwater. To avoid this, let the ship, (if you are near the land) get offing enough to wear and bring the anchor on the weather bow: then the ship, lying to leeward of the anchor, or standing-on under an easy sail, drifts, and consequently leaves the anchor disengaged to windward; in which situation it may be hove with facility. to get under sail when the ship is swinging head to wind, and you want to cast either to starboard or larboard, in a place where there is no current.
TO CAST TO STARBOARD.
HEAVE short on your anchor till it is a-peek: then haul in quite home the larboard braces forward, and starboard braces abaft: loosen, sheet-home, and hoist the topsails, should they not be so already: put the helm a-starboard, and heave till the anchor is a-weigh. The moment the anchor quits the ground, the ship will begin to fall off to starboard. As soon as this movement is perceived hoist the jib and fore-topmast stay-sail, if necessary, to help her: and, when she has sufficiently fallen off, her sails abaft (which are trimmed sharp for the larboard tack) will fill. But, unless for very superior reasons, you had better continue lying-to till the anchor is catted, taking care to haul the mizen-sheets close aft, if the ship be inclined to fall off too much. |
TO CAST TO LARBOARD.
HAUL in the starboard braces forward, and the larboard aft, and put the helm a-port. The rest of the operation is the same as the preceding; and will be equally proved in the following demonstration, by only changing starboard for port. DEMONSTRATION.
YOU heave short before the top-sails are loosened, in order to facilitate the working of the capstern, which would require dangerous efforts, if they were set; since they would be a-back, and consequently in a situation to send the ship a-stern; whereas she should go a-head when you are heaving on your cable. The larboard braces are hauled in forwards, because in that situation, the sails are so braced as to cast the ship’s head to starboard, since they make with the keel the most acute angle possible a-starboard forward, and are at the same time a-back. Besides, the after-sails being braced sharp up to starboard, are also taken a-back like the others, and receive the wind in such a manner as to turn the after-part to port. So that there are always two powers acting in contrary directions, one before and the other abaft the center of gravity of the ship; the one forcing the fore-part to starboard, and the other impelling the after-part to larboard. As these two effects cannot happen without the ship’s going a-stern the moment the anchor quits the ground, since she is no longer with-held by any thing, and is moved by an exterior power, the fluid, which carries her in this direction, part of the effect of her sails giving her stern-way (§ 21.); it follows, that the helm must be put to starboard, that the rudder may help her after-part round to larboard (§ 58). Thus every thing is disposed to make the ship fall off to starboard. The jib and fore-topmast stay-sail are not added, unless there be reasons to fear the ship will not fall off fast enough; and when you find she has sufficiently done so, the mizen is to be hauled out, to procure the contrary effect, and thereby to counterbalance the jib and stay sail, which it is very often necessary to keep set. TO GET UNDER SAIL, WHEN THE SHIP IS RIDING HEAD TO WIND AND TIDE.
IF a ship, riding head to wind and tide, wanted to get under sail; after having decided on which side it is best to have her cast, it must be performed according to one of the foregoing methods, except with regard to the helm, which must be put to starboard, either before the anchor loosens, or while it does, if you wish to cast to port; because the water, coming from forward, acts with the same force on the rudder as if the ship went with the current, impelling the rudder to starboard, and the head to port. Therefore it is evident, in this case, the helm ought to be put to starboard; which, on the contrary, would be put to larboard, was the ship to be cast to port. If the ship, after the anchor is out of the ground, goes a-stern faster than the current runs, the helm must then be used as if there was no current, because the excess of velocity, whereby the ship exceeds that of the water, acts upon the rudder. If it blows fresh, so that you cannot set your topsails without reefing them, let that be done before they are sheeted home; and if it blew so hard as to be obliged to go only under a fore-sail, it |
would be then sufficient to loosen the fore-topsail, without sheeting it home, after having braced it quite close on the side opposite to that you want the ship to cast, not forgetting however to put the helm the same way as you call, as soon as you perceive the ship going a-stern; and when the ship has fallen off sufficiently, then is the time to fill and trim the fore-sail. TO GET UNDER SAIL WHEN THE SHIP IS SWINGING WITH HER HEAD TO THE CURRENT, AND WITH THE WIND A-POINT ABAFT THE BEAM.
THE topsails being stopped with rope-yarns, let them and the mizen topsail be hoisted, and properly trimmed, as if they were set; and, when every thing is properly disposed, heave short on your anchor till it is a-peek; next to this, loosen, sheet home the fore-sail and mizen topsail, keeping the wind in, and heave vigorously at the capstern till the anchor is a-weigh. At the same time hoist the jib and fore-topmast stay-sail, or haul out the mizen, according as circumstances may require. Whether you wish to come to windward, or fall off more quickly, you must still continue to heave round the capstern briskly to get the anchor up, till you find yourself sufficiently offward to bring to, in order to stow it with ease, or to stand on under an easy sail with the anchor hanging out to windward, if the situation of things will admit of it. You may sometimes also hoist up both the main and fore topsails, as soon as you get ready; but, in certain cases, as when obliged to make the best of your way from an enemy, every sail possible must be set at once which the weather will admit of; especially when obliged to haul by the wind; in which case, the anchor must be got up and catted as well as it can: there are cases even when, without losing your time in weighing it, you crowd as many sails as you possibly can, and depart in cutting or slipping the cable. DEMONSTRATION.
THE topsails and mizen topsail are hoisted up, because the sails in that situation are more easily sheeted home and trimmed; and because, as soon as the rope-yarns are cut, the sails fill, and give the ship head way, the moment the anchor quits the ground. The mizen topsail is used to make the ship steer well, by keeping it either filled or loose to the wind, according as the ship is griping or the contrary. TO GET UNDER SAIL WITH A SPRING.
IF a ship be in a place too confined to cast under her sails only, or being obliged to put to sea in a gale of wind, without hoisting the anchors; you must, for greater safety, in casting the right way, get a spring out, to be clapped on the cable by which the ship swings, by passing a hawser or a stream cable through the aftermost port, on the opposite side to that you mean to cast; and, after that springs is well hove tight at the capstern, hoist the jib and fore-topmast stay-sails, look, and sheet home the fore-topsail; when that is done, and if the weather permits, brace quite close the head sails on the same side with the spring. When this is executed, slip or cut the cable, heaving briskly at the same time on the spring, till the ship has paid off sufficiently. Then fill the sails, by setting the mizen topsail |
and every other sail you mean to employ, and slip or cut the spring, as circumstances may require. Care must be taken, not to let the ship fall off too much before the spring is cut; because, having no way through the water, she will not come to the wind so soon as might be wished; and, for the same reason, the spring must not be cut, till she has fallen off as much as is necessary; because, although she has no other motion but that of falling off, the vessel might perhaps not wear enough to answer the purpose. DEMONSTRATION.
AS the reasons have been shewn before why the head sails are braced up on the opposite side to that on which the ship casts, they need not be repeated here. Although we suppose the wind so strong as to keep the ship wind-road, it may be proved that the ship turns almost on the middle of her length; since the moment the fore part begins its movement of falling off on one side, the after part makes another to approach the point from which the head is receding. Now she turns so much the more surely on her center, and her evolution is so much the more rapid, as the force used in heaving at the capstern is stronger: because the more powerful the heaving is, the more of the hawser comes in, and consequently the more easily and with the greatest rapidity will the after part approach the point the head of the ship has left. When she has fallen off enough, slip the spring, because she gathers head-way in proportion as the sails are filling, and in that case the hawser would only hinder the ship going a-head, or cause her to fall off more, which would be equally prejudicial. The hawser or stream cable is passed aft as far as possible; because, being at the extremity of the ship, the capstern strains less, and the vessel turns with more celerity. If this operation is performed when it blows hard, you must not sheet home the fore-topsail: for, if the wind is absolutely too strong, you must only loosen this sail, and hoist the fore-topmast staysail: but, if the weather is pretty tolerable, it will be found sufficient to sheet home the fore-topsail without hoisting it. TO GET UNDER SAIL WITH A LEADING WIND IN A TIDE WAY.
IF the ship to be got under sail has a leading wind, and is in the midst of vessels, or in a narrow channel, where it would be difficult to cast her upon the lee tide, she should be got under sail before the weather tide is done. Thus the casting of the ship would be avoided, and she may be steered through the fleet, or channel, with safety. Should it, however, blow so fresh upon the windward tide, as to force the ship end-on with her cable, it will be impossible to heave it in, without sheering the ship over from side to side, and heaving in briskly, as the ship slacks the cable; but, as this is attended with much danger, by the ship suddenly bringing up upon each sheer, it will be best to heave a-peek upon the first setting of the windward tide, before the ship swings, to bring the wind aft. |
TO CAST A SHIP UPON THE LARBOARD TACK, AND BACK HER A-STERN OF DANGER.
WE suppose the ship to lie at single anchor, with the wind and tide the same way, and ships or shoals right a-stern, in the intended course, and that, to clear them, you must cast upon the larboard tack, and make a stern board. Make every thing as ready as possible before weighing: let the three topsails be hoisted, the yards braced up sharp with the larboard braces, and the mizen hauled out. Thus situated, when the anchor weighs, put the helm a-port. The tide, running aft, acts against the starboard side of the rudder; and, in that direction, it will cast the ship the right way, and bring the wind upon the larboard bow. The wind may be thus kept, at pleasure, by the helm, till the ship begins to get sternway through the water, which should be attentively noticed, to put the helm hard a-port. The wind, being on the larboard bow and the topsails a-back, will soon give the ship sternway through the water; then the water will act against the larboard side of the rudder, and powerfully prevent the ship falling too fast off from the wind. Thus she will drive till the anchor is got quite up, and may be so continued till she has past the shoals, and has room to veer, and get upon her proper course. It is advantageous to make a stern board in getting under way from a single anchor in the above situation. The anchor heaves up more easily when the ship goes a-stern; and, while heaving up, it serves to keep the ship’s head to the wind. A ship, however, cannot long be steered stern foremost when under sail, so as to keep the wind before the beam; but she will in a little time drive broadside through the water, till she gets headway, and then it is proper to veer, provided the anchor be quite up. TO CAST A SHIP ON THE LARBOARD TACK, IN A TIDE WAY, WITH THE WIND TWO POINTS ON THE STARBOARD BOW.
A ship riding in a tide-way, with the wind two points on the starboard bow, and so near the shore on the larboard side, that she must be cast upon the larboard tack, to clear the shore, the threetopsails, must be hoisted, and the yards sharp braced up, with the larboard braces forward, and the starboard braces aft, with the starboard fore top bowline well hauled, putting the helm hard to port, at the anchor’s weighing; the tide acting upon the rudder, and the wind upon the sails braced in that direction, brings the ship about, with the wind on the larboard bow, before she gets sternway, which should be always strictly noticed; for, in all proceedings of this kind, if a ship gets sternway, before she brings the wind right a-head, she will not come about the right way. In that case, it is best to veer away the cable directly, and bring the ship up again: and carry out a kedge or small anchor, on the larboard bow, hauling its cable or hawser in tight, on the larboard quarter, when the bower anchor’s a-peek. If this fail, the ship must lie till the windward tide makes, to bring the wind on the larboard bow, when the ship may be got under-way, and clear the shore. |
TO CAST A SHIP UPON THE LARBOARD TACK, AND SHOOT HER BY THE WIND A-HEAD OF DANGER.
IF there is but just room enough close by the wind to clear a danger lying to leeward, much depends on heaving up briskly the anchor after it is out of the ground, and having proper sails ready to set to the best advantage. The three topsails must be hoisted, and the yards sharp braced up with the larboard braces forward, and the starboard braces aft, when the anchor is at a long peek. At weighing the anchor, put the helm hard to port, then the action of the tide upon the rudder, and the wind on the fore-topsail will cast the ship off the right way, so as to fill the after sails, when the foretopsail may be soon braced about and filled before she gets sternway. The helm will keep the ship under command sufficiently to steer her by the wind a-head clear of danger; but, if the ship gets sternway in casting, the helm should be kept hard a-weather to prevent her falling off too much from the wind; and, when she gets headway again, be cautious how the weather helm is eased with the anchor much below the bows, by which the resistance forward is increased, and the ship may be brought up in the wind, so as to prevent her shooting clear of the danger. This must be guarded against by the weather helm, and head sails, as jib, fore-topmast &c. As soon as the ship has shot far enough a-head to clear the danger to leeward, and there be but little room a-head, it is best to bring the ship to and drive with the helm a-lee with the main and mizen topsail aback, and the fore-topsail shivering till the anchor is up, then take proper time to veer. TO CAST A SHIP ON THE LARBOARD TACK, WHEN RIDING WITH THE WIND RIGHT A-HEAD, AND TO VEER HER SHORT ROUND BEFORE THE WIND IN LITTLE ROOM.
THE head sails should only be loose, viz. the fore-topsail hoisted and the foresail loose, braced sharp up with the larboard braces, the jib and fore-topmast staysail set, with the larboard sheets flat aft, When the anchor is a-peek, and a lee tide running, at weighing the anchor the helm should be put to port so far as to bring the wind two points on the larboard bow, which should be kept so by steering the ship till the tide ceases to run aft. Then put the helm hard to starboard, or a-lee; and when the ship gets sternway, the water will act powerfully on the starboard, or lee side of the rudder, turning the ship’s stem to windward, whilst the wind, acting at the same time upon the head sails a-back, will box her round off upon her heel, so as to bring the wind nearly aft, by the time she loses her sternway. Then the ship will cease falling off and soon get head-way, which should be attended to, and the head sails braced about flat with the starboard braces, and the helm shifted hard to port at the same time. When there is no tide, but still water at weighing the anchor, the helm must be hard to starboard; and, as the ship gets sternway, the water meets with so much resistance against the starboard side of the rudder in that direction, that the rudder acts with great power to turn the ship’s stern round to port, and the head sails being set and trimmed as before mentioned, and the foresail let fall with the starboard bowline hauled close forward, will assist to cast the ship so far round the right way, by the time she looses her sternway, as then to permit your proceeding as before directed. To ensure success, heave the anchor up briskly. The same methods are adopted in casting the ship on the starboard tack, only the helm and sails are managed the contrary way. |
ON TACKING.
TO TACK A SHIP IN GETTING TO WINDWARD AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE.
TO execute this with propriety, care must be taken that the ship does not yaw, that she is not too near or too far from the wind; because both situations are equally prejudicial. When this medium is obtained, haul the mizen out, while you put at the same time the helm a-lee, and brace the bowline quite to leeward, that the mizen may be as much as possible exposed to the wind. When the ship is come to the wind, so as to cause the square sails to shiver let go the jib and all the staysail sheets before the main mast: at the moment when all the sails catch a-back, and particularly the mizen topsail, let it be braced sharp about the other way; hauling up at the same time the weather clue of the main sail; and, when the wind is right a-head, or even a little before, haul the main sail, and trim sharp for the other tack as fast as possible. The jib and staysail sheets are also to be shifted over at the same time, in righting the helm, whether the ship has lost her way, or even still advances a-head. Then, as soon as she has passed the direction of the wind about 45°, in continuing her evolution, shift the foremast’s sails, which are to be trimmed with the same celerity as in putting the helm a-lee, if you fear the ship (which must still go a-stern if the operation be slowly executed) will not fall off sufficiently: for, if the sails are braced about briskly, she will never have sternway; on the contrary, she will get a great deal to windward. DEMONSTRATION.
IF the ship be too near the wind, when the helm is put a-lee, she will most probably miss stays; since not having sufficient way through the water, the rudder will not have a sufficient power to cause the ship to double the critical point where all the sails shiver. The power of the rudder to turn the ship, is in proportion to the force with which the water strikes it (§ 58). Hence it follows, that if the ship has not sufficient velocity, the rudder will not have force enough to cause her to double the point, where all that can augment or keep up the rapidity of sailing (and of consequence the power of the helm) will cease, the sails being all shivering. The ship must then necessarily fall off, since the helm is a-lee, and none of her sails tend to shoot her a-head. On the contrary, her mizen being out, and braced quite to leeward, forces the stern and the ship athwart (§ 40.); while, by the wind which strikes her sails, rigging, and hull, she is but too ready to drive a-stern, as a ship always finds great difficulty to divide the fluid laterally. Thus it is clear, that, every thing being disposed for driving the ship the sternway, she must infallibly both go a-stern and leeward (§ 58). This is confirmed by experience; for, whenever a ship misses stays, she is visibly perceived to fall abaft. |
If, previous to tacking a ship is kept too much a-way, she will be longer in ranging to the wind; which must consequently be disadvantageous to the evolution. We should not have mentioned this custom, did not many seamen, through mere habit, put it in practice, and thereby fail in this operation, which would however have succeeded, had they not had the habit of letting go the fore-jib, and staysail sheets. When these have been kept fast, the edging away can only prolong the time of the evolution; but, if the fore, jib, and staysail sheets be let go, as a great many do at every turn, and as in some particular cases it is really found necessary, care must be taken not to suffer the ship to fall off too much: because the velocity of the ship not being sufficiently kept up (§ 46.) till the ship comes to the wind, it follows that she has lost a good deal of it, before she arrives at the critical part of the evolution, where all the sails shake. So that, when the ship is at that point, the velocity is so much diminished, the rudder has not power enough to make her double it: on the other hand, the fore part of the ship is no longer carried to the wind with the same force, since the vessel no longer shocks the fluid (§ 47.) with her first velocity. The mizen is hauled out to help the rudder; because these two forces act together in impelling the after part of the ship to leeward (§ 40. & § 50). When the helm is a-lee, the ship of course comes head to wind; and continues that circular motion, first by the effect of the rudder, till the head way ceases, and then by that of the mizen, till the other sails take the wind from it. Therefore, when the mizen is becalmed by the other sails, the evolution is sure, as this could not happen if those sails were not taken a-back. You must wait till the square sails begin to shiver, before letting go the jib and all the staysail sheets before the main mast; because, till that moment, these sails concur to maintain an equilibrium with the others, and keep up the ship’s velocity; since it is the disposition of the different sails set on the different parts of the ship, which gives her more or less way through the water (§ 46). These however being now the only sails which tend to make the ship fall off (§ 31.), since they are the only sails full, the others being shivering, it is absolutely necessary at this moment to suppress that effect, since it is contrary to the movement of coming to; the action of the mizen is, however, to be preserved as long as possible, in order to help the rudder, which, in keeping up the movement of rotation of the ship, will soon make her clear the critical point of the evolution. Experience teaches that the motion of the ship, in coming to the wind, at the moment the jib and staysail sheets are let go, is very rapid, provided the other sails shiver; because the velocity of the ship, at that moment, is as great as when all the sails were exposed to the impulsion of the wind. Consequently, the effort of the rudder is likewise very powerful (§ 50.), since the rapidity of sailing has not diminished. The mizen sail is to be braced up so far as to join the main shrouds to windward; because in that situation it is exposed as much as it possibly can to the wind, and receives consequently a stronger and longer impulsion; and, again, because it is trimmed as it will remain even after the evolution has been performed. The mizen topsail should be braced about as soon as it is taken a-back, because it will then impel the stem to leeward, jointly with the mizen (§ 44,), and, by this new disposition, accelerate the evolution: whereas, if it were continued in its first situation, it would retard the circular motion of the ship, by impelling the after part to windward (§ 45). It will also, in this situation become very useful, in moderating the stern and lee way of the ship. At this same time, the weather clue and sheets of the main sail are hauled up, in order that all may be ready to brace round for the other tack. |
The main sails are to be hauled about and filled when the wind is right a-head; because 1st, at this time the sails on that mast are becalmed by those of the fore mast: 2dly, should they be left longer in this situation, they would counteract the head sails (§ 37, § 38, § 44, & § 45.) which are braced up for the same tack, and in the same manner; and, finally, because, were it not for this, the sine of incidence of the wind on them would be continually increasing as the ship were falling off, which would more and more retard her bearing away. It is, notwithstanding, not untrue, that the evolution would be more rapid, if the sails on the main mast were filled as soon as they are taken a-back: because (§ 44.) they would impel the after part of the ship to leeward. But, this effect of the after sails ought not to be attended to, except when the ship has lost her velocity, and the rudder its power. Whence it must be concluded, that the ship will always fall off with great celerity, as soon as the main sail is hauled. The jib and staysail sheets are also shifted at this time, if they have not been lowered before; because, if sooner, they would take the wind in again, which must not be done before the ship has fallen off sufficiently to clear the direction of the wind. The helm is to be righted if the ship has lost her way; because, if it were continued a-lee, as in the first instant, and the ship should get sternway, the rudder (§ 58.) would oppose the evolution, which must now be finished with sufficient rapidity by the whole effect of the head sails, as those are now fully exposed to the power of the wind. Great care must be taken not to slack the bow lines, as is often done by people who act more from custom than reflection. The head sails are to be braced about and filled, when the ship has got over the direction of the wind by 45°, or thereabouts; because, if they were left longer a-back, the motion of falling off the ship would become too rapid, and too great. If they are braced about briskly at the time before mentioned, they may be made to shiver, which, by diminishing their effect, will moderate the great velocity of falling off which the ship has acquired (§ 37). The helm ought to be put a-lee (§ 58.) if the ship goes a-stern, to aid her falling off, which is now carried on only by the jib and stay sails before the center of gravity. Thus the ship falls off moderately, in yielding to the wind by 12° or 20° only, more large than if close hauled; because the after sails, being trimmed sharp, soon bring the ship to the wind, and give her head way (§ 41). Let it not be forgotten, that the helm ought not to be put a-lee in hauling off all, unless you judge the ship not sufficiently inclined to fall off, which however seldom happens when she is come to this point. the demonstration of this evolution comprehends the whole play of the sails and of the rudder; so that all other demonstrations might be considered as so many corollaries deduced from it. TO TACK A SHIP, WITHOUT ENDEAVOURING TO GET TO WINDWARD.
THERE are circumstances sometimes when it is found necessary to tack, without caring much whether the ship looses to windward. For, example; when a ship is found suddenly to be close to the land; in the night, or in foggy weather; near a danger, or some vessel, which must instantly be avoided by staying the ship, because you find yourself to windward, and too near the object from which you wish to recede. In this case, when it is necessary to deaden the ship’s way, and tack at the same time, you must suddenly put the helm hard a-lee; and, in the same instant, let go the jib, |
fore, and stay sail sheets, without touching the bow-lines; and great care must be taken that the effect of the mizen is preserved as much as possible. When the sails begin to shiver, the mizen is to be hauled quite in the lee braces: then, if the ship takes well the wind a-head, the remainder of the operation must be executed as directed in the preceding case: but, if you should miss stays, you must proceed according to the second method of veering, called boxhauling. DEMONSTRATION.
It is easily conceived that, in letting go the fore, the jib, and staysail sheets, the ship’s head way will be diminished (§ 46), while, at the same time, almost all the forces forward are taken away which might hinder her coming to the wind (§ 31): therefore the ship must come to it rapidly, by the effect of her after sails (§ 41. ) which are trimmed sharp, and by the power of the helm (§ 50), till all the sails shake. It is also easy to conceive that when the mizen is hauled in the lee braces, it has a greater power to impel the after part of the ship to leeward, and the sails consequently to take a-back. So that the ship’s head way will the sooner be stopped; and, the fore sheet being gone, the sail to windward makes a large cavity between the mast and shrouds; which very much contributes to send the ship a-stern. Attention ought therefore to be paid to catch the instant, when the head way ceases, to shift the helm and aid the ship in her evolution; as we hinted already. The reason this method is not always practised, is because the ship would lose a deal of ground in driving to leeward, in wearing thus. It ought, therefore, never to be used but when necessity obliges, and the vessel has good way through the water; for, if she has not, she will generally miss stays. TO TACK A SHIP IN A DANGEROUS ROUGH SEA WHEN HER STAYING IS DOUBTFUL.
LET every thing be got clear and ready; the hands at their proper stations; the sails trimmed fair; and the ship steered just full, and close by the wind. Take the advantage of the smoothest time when the ship has the most head way. The other necessary precautions are, to haul down the jib, if set, and not to put the helm a-lee all at once, but to luff the ship up by degrees, to shake the sails. When they shake, give these orders-The helm hard a-lee; let go the lee sheets forward, but not the lee braces and foretop bowline, as that usual practice backs the head sails too soon, and stops the ship’s head way, which ought to continue to give power to the helm, till the wind is brought a-head, or the ship will not stay. Raise tacks and sheets, and main sail haul, when the wind is a-point on the weather bow: this swings the yards round sharp, that the main tack may be got close down, whilst the head sails becalm the fore leech of the main and main topsails; while the wind, blowing aslant on the after leech of these sails, acts jointly with the rudder to turn the ship’s stem, so as to bring her about the right way. When she has fallen off five or six points, let go and haul. When a ship comes about, she is sure to have sternway by the time the head sails are hauled: therefore, the helm should not then be shifted a-lee, but should be kept hard a-weather, till her sternway ceases. The water acting upon the weather side of the rudder prevents the ship falling round off from the wind, which the helm, when hard a-lee, occasions, while the sternway continues, Notice should be made by the compass, that the ship continues coming about till the wind is on the |
other bow; for, if she stops with the wind a-head, and her headway is perceived to be done, the helm should be directly shifted to the other side, so that, by the sternway, the water may act upon the rudder and bring her about, and then the helm should not be kept a-lee, but directly shifted and kept hard a-weather, till her sternway ceases. For the reason just given the head sails may be hauled as soon as possible; for the ship will be sure to fall off the faster and faster in proportion to her sternway; so that the weather braces should be tended, to prevent the head yards flying fore and aft, as they will do when it blows fresh; and to keep the head sails shivering, that the fore tack may be got close down easily, and the ship stopt the sooner from falling off. Shift the helm a-lee when the sternway ceases; and the head sails may be trimmed sharp as the ship is perceived to come-to. ON TURNING TO WINDWARD IN VERY NARROW CHANNELS.
AT weighing, if the wind is partly across the tide, it will cast the ship with her head towards the weather shore, which she may be kept clear off, by driving with the sails a-back till the anchor is up and stowed; and, as the tack towards the weather shore, is the shortest, it is prudent to back, as near the lee side as possible, in order to make the first board the longer; to get the three topsails, jib, staysail, and mizen, properly set; and to get all ready in time for tacking. Make as bold as possible with the weather shore, because on that side a ship is always surest in coming about; and, in case of missing stays, a ship may be backed off from the weather shore, till she has room to fill and set the sails, and get sufficient headway, to try her in stays again, without danger. But, when the ship is got about, and standing towards the lee shore, it may be necessary to put her in stays in good time; because she does not so certainly stay, when going slanting with the tide as when going across it. By staying her thus in good time, if she even miss stays, there may be room enough to fill, and try her the second time, or to use such means as may prevent her going on shore. But, when the wind is right against the tide, which begins to make to windward, be cautious not to weigh the anchor, till the ship swings end-on to the tide, and brings the wind so far aft, that she may be steered right against the tide till the anchor is up and stowed, and the sails with which the ship is to work are all ready. Haul the wind and get ready for tacking, when you are close over to one side, to gain the whole breadth of the channel for getting underway. For this purpose, let the first trip be made as short as possible, till it is found how the ship works upon both tacks; and then make longer or shorter boards accordingly, but take care not to stand into an eddy tide, on either side, which has often occasioned ships to miss stays, and go on shore. If a ship will not stay, she must be veered, box hauled, or club hauled. |
OF VEERING.
TO VEER A SHIP WITHOUT LOSING THE WIND OUT OF HER SAILS.
TO execute this evolution, both the main sail and mizen must be hauled up, the helm put a weather, and the mizen topsail a shivering, which will be kept so till the wind be right aft, suppressing for that purpose the effect of all the staysails abaft the center of gravity. As the ship falls off, (which she will do very rapidly,) round in the weather braces of the sails on the fore and main mast, keeping them exactly trimmed to the direction of the wind, and remembering also that the bow-lines are not to be started till the ship begins to veer. As she falls off, ease away the fore sheet, raise the fore tack, and get aft the weather sheet, as the lee one is eased off; so that, when the ship is right before the wind, the yards will be exactly square. Then shift over the jib and staysail sheets; and the ship continuing her evolution, haul on board the fore and main tacks, and trim all sharp fore and aft, remembering to haul aft the mizen and mizen staysail sheets as soon as they will take the right way, or when the ship’s stern has a little passed the direction of the wind. When the wind is on the beam, right the helm, to moderate the great velocity with which the ship comes-to; the sails being trimmed, stand on by the wind. DEMONSTRATION.
THE main sail and mizen are hauled up, and the mizen topsail shivered, in order to facilitate the evolution (§ 40 & 41). The main sail, however, might be excepted from this rule, by letting go the main sheet (§ 49), and working it like the main topsail. The helm is put a-weather, because, in that situation, the rudder (§ 50.) causes the ship to fall off, or yield to the impulse of the wind, by impelling the after part of the ship to windward with so much the more velocity as the power of the head sails exceeds that of those abaft (§ 47), and as, the rapidity of sailing increasing, the effect of the helm augments in the same proportion. The sails are trimmed to the direction of the wind, as the ship veers, to increase her head way, and of course the power of the rudder (§ 58); which, in great evolutions, is the chief mover, and principal agent of the movement of the ship. So that, its effects being augmented, the ship’s circular motion is of course accelerated in the same ratio; and, if the wind be well followed, every sail will be found properly trimmed when the evolution is finished. Since the sails must kept in a proper situation with respect to the wind, except the mizen topsail, (which, from its situation on the after extremity of the ship, would retard her veering), the fore sheet must be eased off to leeward, and gathered aft to windward, but in proportion as the ship falls off. It is also evident, for the same reason, that the bowlines must not be started, till the ship begins |
to veer. When the wind is right aft, the jib and staysail sheets, which are then becalmed by the square sails, are shifted, because the ship coming to the wind, they are ready trimmed, and highly serviceable in keeping her under command. The mizen is hauled out as soon as the ship’s stern has passed the direction of the wind, to accelerate her coming to (§ 40); and the sails fore and aft ought to be trimmed sharp at the same moment, in order to keep to the wind without losing any time. For the above-mentioned reasons the main tack is got on board, and the sheet aft, when the wind is on the quarter. TO VEER A SHIP THAT HAS LOST HER FORE MAST.
RUN out the end of a cable or hawser over the lee-quarter, and buoy it up from the ground with empty casks, &c. in case of coming into shoals water, with little wind. This will assist the helm with such power, as to make the ship veer and steer at pleasure. A spare yard or boom, rigged out abaft the mizen shrouds, may guy the end of the cable or hawser more or less on either quarter, according as the ship may have occasion to sail. It may be easily shifted from side to side, and guyed out to leeward in proportion to the ship’s griping, to answer sailing upon both tacks: and, when sailing before the wind, it may be secured over the middle of the stern, which will prevent the ship’s broaching-to against the helm either way. This would likewise much assist deep-laded bad steering ships, and prevent their broaching-to; to which they are liable in spite of the best helmsmen, often occasioning them to lie-to, even with a fair wind. With a little contrivance, by blocks, lashed to the rails on the quarters, to lead the guys fair to the steering wheel barrel, it may be made to steer a ship that has lost her rudder: The invention of Capt. Pakenham is, however, far preferable for this purpose. TO VEER WHEN LYING-TO UNDER A MAIN SAIL.
ADVANTAGE must be taken of the ship’s falling off to put the helm a-weather, and ease away the main sheet roundly; and, when the ship has fallen off about 30°, let go the main bowline, and round in the weather brace, taking care to keep the sail full. When the ship is before the wind, get on board the main tack, and right the helm, to moderate her coming-to. If, in the beginning, the ship is found difficult to veer, the fore staysail may be hoisted, and the sheets hauled well aft: but it is to be hauled down as soon as the ship is before the wind. DEMONSTRATION.
OPPORTUNITY must be taken of the ship’s falling off, because that motion of the ship gives her way, and makes her of course better disposed to gather way. For that reason also the helm is then put a-weather (§ 50, 58), and the main sheet eased off roundly (§ 49.) that only that part of the sail which is before the center of gravity of the ship may be left to act. The main bowline is kept fast till the ship has fallen off 30°, at least, and then let go directly, because the wind is then more easily kept in the sail, the velocity of the ship increased, and consequently the power of the |
helm (§ 58.) and the movement of rotation is also accelerated (§ 16, 17, 18). By hauling in the weather brace, you follow the wind with the sail; and when the wind is right aft, that sail will be found square. To trim it, you have but to ease off the brace, and bring the tack on the same board as you take the wind; an operation for which you have full time sufficient, as, by righting the helm, you moderate the velocity with which the ship flies to the wind, since by that action the effect of the rudder is totally suppressed. A SECOND METHOD.
MAKE fast a four inch rope to the slings of the main yard; and when the ship comes-to, so as to shiver the main sail, bring it down before the sail to the topsail-sheet-bits, and let it be hauled tight and belayed. Then, as soon as she falls off, put the helm a-weather, and let go the main sheet. By these means the lee part of the sail no longer has any power to keep the ship to the wind, and the weather part acting before the center of gravity will cause her to veer faster than by the first method; though, in general, the first method will answer the purpose. TO VEER UNDER BARE POLES.
THE fore staysail must, if circumstances will allow it, be hoisted (§ 31). But, if that cannot be done, the head yards are to be braced up as sharp as possible, and those abaft pointed to the wind. Then, if the ship veers, she will steer under the masts and ropes only. A number of seamen, sent up and placed close to each other in the weather fore shrouds, will be found also of very great service. TO BOXHAUL A SHIP, OR THE SECOND METHOD OF VEERING.
IN this evolution, the most rapid execution is necessary. Briskly, and at the same instant, haul up both the main sail and the mizen; shiver the main and mizen topsails; put the helm hard a-lee; raise the fore tack; let go the head bowlines, and brace about the head yards sharp the other way; and let the jib and staysail sheets go in the same instant. When the ship has fallen off 90°, brace the after yards square, in order to give the ship a little way, and to help her (with the rudder, the situation of which must be changed) to double the point where all the sails shiver; and, when the wind is aft, you will proceed as in the method of "Veering without losing the wind out of the sails." If the circular motion of the ship, after she has fallen off 90°, continues pretty rapid, the filling of the after sails, to give the ship headway, may be dispensed with; because she continues to turn by the effect of her helm, which must not be shifted (§ 58), since the vessel still continues her sternway. Therefore, after having veered a few degrees more, the wind will fill all the sails, and the ship consequently, will have headway (§ 35 & 43). Then change the situation of the rudder (§ 50), to bring her before the wind. In a case of absolute danger, when it might be necessary to go a-stern and fall off more rapidly, put the helm a-lee, brace all the sails a-back, observing not to brace the after sails more than square, that they may not counteract the head sails, which are braced sharp a-back to pay the ship’s head off; |
because the effect of the aftersails, in this situation, is to impel the ship abaft in the direction of her keel (§ 36); which, with those forward, contribute to give her fresh sternway, in order to cause the ship to veer (§ 58.) with greater celerity. The jib and fore topmast staysail sheets being hauled over to windward, will assist the ship in falling off and going a-stern, (§ 31). When a ship is taken a-back, by bad steerage or a shift of wind, she may sometimes be brought on the same tack again, by instantly bracing sharp round the head sails, and keeping fast the jib and staysail sheets. One must recollect, also, the aftersails are not to be touched (§ 45), till the ship has sufficiently fallen off; and, when that shall be the case, trim the sails and stand on as before. The rudder is to be used, as occasion may require, according to § 50 and 58, whether the ship has head or stern way. DEMONSTRATION.
THIS operation should be performed with the greatest alacrity, because it is only practised in critical situations; such as finding the ship unexpectedly too near the land, or because the ship misses stays. The reasons for hauling up the main and the mizen sails, and shivering the mizen topsail, having been given before, we have only to add, that the reason why the main topsail is shivered is, that, if it were kept full, it would bring the ship to the wind (§ 41), by shooting her a-head, so that she would almost be laid-to. If this sail were braced a-back, more than perfectly square or perpendicular to the keel, it would still keep the ship to the wind, since it would be braced the same way with the head sails. Therefore, it would impel the afterpart of the ship to leeward (§ 44), and act consequently against the power of the head sails, which ought to cause the ship to veer rapidly, because they receive the wind on their anterior surfaces (§ 37, & 38.) with a very great sine of incidence. It is therefore absolutely necessary to keep the after sails shivering till the ship has fallen off 90°, or thereabouts; because, then, all the sails are trimmed and shivering in the same direction, since the head sails were suddenly braced sharp a-back, in the beginning, to promote the ship’s veering; and the after sails were also changed at the same time, by bracing them by little and little to the wind, to keep them shivering, as the ship falls off. If the sails are well worked, they will all be found shivering at the same time; and then they no longer act on the ship, which will not double this point by the sole effect of the helm, for the helm was put hard a-lee in the beginning, to heave up in the wind, with all possible expedition; but the ship, soon after getting sternway, falls off rapidly, both by the effect of her sails, and by that of her rudder, which is well disposed for this movement (§ 58), but has not always sufficient force to cause the ship to double the point where all her sails shiver; because the wind, being then on her quarter, acts on the whole machine, to send her a-head; so that, if one ceased working here for a moment, the ship would be motionless for a time, having lost her sternway. To put her again in action, and prevent her from driving more than is necessary to leeward, fill the after sails, as mentioned above, to give her headway, in order that, by shifting the helm (§ 50), the wind may be quickly brought aft. The jib and staysail sheets are let go, because they tend to draw the ship a-head (§ 31). Boxhauling is deemed the surest and readiest way to get a ship under command of the helm and sails, with the least loss of ground to leeward, when a ship refuses stays. The masters of sloop-rigged vessels, turning to windward in narrow channels, when they want but little to weather a certain point, run up in the wind till the headway ceases, then they fill again upon the same tack: this |
they call making a half-board. Thus a ship, in boxhauling, may be said to make two half-boards, first running with her head, then with her stern, up in the wind; by which two motions a ship rather gains to windward. TO CLUBHAUL A SHIP.
CLUBHAULING is practised when it is expected that a ship will refuse stays upon a lee shore. Place the hands to their stations for putting the ship about, and come by the lee anchor; then put the helm down, and if the ship make a stand before she brings the wind a-head, let go the anchor, and haul the main sail. When the wind is a-head, cut the cable, and the ship will cast the way required. The aftersails being full, let go and haul. ANOTHER METHOD.
BEND a hawser to the kedge anchor on the lee bow, and bring the end into one of the after ports, or over the taffarel. Let go the anchor, brace up all sharp the contrary way, put the helm a-lee, and haul in briskly on the hawser. As soon as she gets head way, cut or slip the hawser, and carry a press of sail. OF LYING-TO, &c.
OF LYING-TO IN FAIR WEATHER.
LYING-TO is the art of disposing the sails in such a manner, that, counteracting each other, they render the ship as it were, for a time, immoveable. This is seldom practised but under the three topsails; yet it is indifferent whether the fore or main topsails be braced a-back, or kept full; because, as these two sails have surfaces nearly equal, they have nearly the same power either to stop the ship’s way, or to cause her to run a-head. When these two sails act together, or one against the other, one always tends to pay the ship’s head off, and the other to keep her to the wind (§ 32, 37, 41, & 44). But there are other considerations to be attended to, when necessity requires this operation to be praticed. TO LIE-TO TO WINDWARD OF A SHIP, SO AS NOT TO DRIFT NEAR HER.>
THE main topsail must be braced sharp a-back, keeping the fore and mizen topsails full; because the wind acts with a very small sine of incidence on a sail when full, in comparison to what it does |
when braced sharp a-back: so that the fore topsail, being full, draws the ship a-head, and the effect of falling off is opposed by the main and mizen topsails. She will of course not fall off much; nor will her leeway be very considerable; for the ship is well kept to the wind, by the disposition given to her sails. TO LIE-TO UNDER THE LEE OF ANOTHER SHIP.
THE fore topsail ought to be braced sharp a-back, the main and mizen topsails kept full, because these two last-mentioned sails tend to give the ship headway, and keep her to the wind: they may be assisted by the mizen, which will oppose the falling off occasioned by the fore topsail. Thus, should the ship to windward fall off violently, or drift too much, you are more ready to veer short round, and avoid being boarded; because the fore topsail being braced sharp a-back, the impulse of the wind on it is much greater than if it were full; and it is well disposed to veer suddenly, as soon as the power of the other sails is suppressed. TO BRING-TO WITH THE FORE OR MAIN TOPSAILS A-BACK TO THE MAST, OR FILLED.
EITHER the fore or main topsail must be braced sharp a-back, and the lee bowline hauled up a little: the other two topsails trimmed sharp; with the mizen hauled out, and the helm a-lee. If you bring-to with the fore topsail to the mast, the head yards may be only laid square. Then the wind will act obliquely on the sail, and the ship will fall off but little, because its effect is in the direction of the keel from forward aft, and the sails abaft keep the ship to. The main topsail may be worked in the same manner, if you wish not to expose yourself much to the wind. DEMONSTRATION.
IT has already been demonstrated, that if the fore or main topsail be braced sharp a-back, while the other remains full by the wind, the ship stands as if it were immoveable, for their actions are absolutely contrary with respect to the center of gravity (§ 18), and very nearly equal; therefore, in this situation, the ship can but drive to leeward at the rate of about half a league an hour. TO BRING-TO WITH THE THREE TOPSAILS A-BACK.
THE jib and staysails being hauled down, brace sharp round at once all the sails you wish to lay a-back in hauling up the lee bowlines, the better to expose the sails to the action of the wind; haul out the mizen, and put the helm hard a-weather. |
DEMONSTRATION.
THE jib and all the staysails are hauled down, because they are before the center of gravity (§ 31.); and the head sails being braced sharp a-back, have force enough (§ 37.) to balance the effect of those abaft (§ 44); which, being braced in the same manner, receive the wind with the same sine of incidence as those forward. But, as, in that situation, the head sails have more power to cause the ship to fall off (§ 12.) than those abaft, being a little becalmed by those forward, have to bring her to the wind, the mizen is hauled out (§ 40), and the helm is put a-weather (§ 58), because the ship goes a-stern with all the topsails to the mast. In this situation, then, the sails, assisted by the rudder, act the one against the other, and balance reciprocally their effects of springing the luff and falling off: and, though the ship goes a-stern and drifts a great deal, she is layed-to; because, in that situation, she yields but with great difficulty to the impulse of her sails, on account of the resistance of the water (§ 5.) opposed to the very great surface of her bottom under the lee. If there were occasion to keep the mizen topsail full, it might be done with advantage; because the effect of its acting against the other sails is so inconsiderable, that it cannot admit of a comparison, as its surface is hardly half that of the main topsail. If it be desired to go a-stern without falling off, the head sails are to be laid square only. TO FILL, WHEN LYING-TO WITH THE FORE TOPSAIL TO THE MAST.
BRAIL up the mizen, hoist the jib and fore topmast staysail, shiver the main and mizen top-sails; and, when the ship has fallen off 20° or 30°, fill the fore topsail, which was a-back before, and stand on. DEMONSTRATION.
THE mizen is hauled up, that its effect of keeping the ship to the wind may cease (§ 40). The jib and fore topmast staysails are hoisted, to help the ship in falling off (§ 31). The main and mizen topsails are shivered, because their effects are contrary (§ 41. & 44.) to the movement expected from the ship. Every thing, therefore, which causes her keeping to the wind, ceasing to act, and all that promotes her falling off, now operating, it follows that she must fall off with a rapidity so much the greater, as the helm is still a-lee (§ 58). The ship goes a-stern, since her head sails are braced a-back, and her after sails so disposed and shivering, that, when she has fallen off sufficiently, the head sails fill, and you stand on directly. TO FILL, WHEN LYING-TO WITH THE MAIN TOPSAIL TO THE MAST.
BRACE sharp and briskly the fore topsail a-back; shiver the main and mizen topsails; hoist the jib and fore topmast staysails, and brail up the mizen, all at the same time; and, when the ship has fallen off 20° or 30°, fill the fore topsail, and stand on. |
If you are obliged to keep the wind on the same tack as that on which you are lying-to, you have only to right the helm, fill the topsail which is a-back, and trim it sharp, to continue your course. DEMONSTRATION.
THE fore topsail is braced sharp a back, in order to cause the vessel to fall off more readily, as then it receives a very strong impulse from the wind (§ 37): the rest of the demonstration will be found in the preceding. A SECOND METHOD.
TRIM the topsail which was to the mast, in order to give the ship way through the water, and be able to tack, or run large, according as may be found necessary. But this method is very tedious, unless you mean to heave in stays, in which case it will be most expeditious. A THIRD METHOD.
SHIVER the main and mizen topsail, keeping the fore topsail full, righting the helm, and running up the jib and fore topmast staysail at the same time. As soon as the ship has fallen off enough to get headway, fill the after sails, and keep the ship in the direction you mean to follow. It is easily seen that this method, though the most common, is not the most expeditious, when you have to veer considerably. TO FILL, WHEN LYING-TO WITH ALL THE SAILS TO THE MAST.
BRAIL up the mizen, lay the after yards square, and shift the helm a-lee. When the ship has fallen off sufficiently to fill the after sails, those forward are then to be braced about and trimmed full also, in order to stand on. DEMONSTRATION.
THE mizen is brailed up, because its effect is to keep the ship to the wind (§ 40). The after yards are laid square, because then they give the ship sternway (§ 36), which causes her to fall off, since they increase her velocity in the last-mentioned direction, the helm being a-lee so as to turn the stern to windward (§ 58). The head sails are braced about and filled at the same time as the after sails are, that the ship may not be as it were laid-to, and that she may get headway to continue her course. OF LYING-TO IN A GALE OF WIND.
TO lie-to, when it blows hard, is to keep as close to the wind as possible under some one sail well trimmed, with the helm lashed a-lee as much as may be requisite for the ship: and, as ships commonly bring-to from the stress of contrary winds, care should be taken to heave-to under that which will least strain the ship; because there are some ships which lie-to better under the fore sail than the main sail; others are more easy under the main sail; some under a mizen; and many vessels lie-to best under a main staysail. |
LYING-TO UNDER A FORESAIL.
THIS is advantageous for veering (§32.) when you are well to windward; but it augments the lee way, and is more subject to break the sea on board, on account of the ship’s continual falling off: because, in that movement, she gathers way by yielding to the impulse of the gale, and is afterwards recalled to the wind by the helm (§ 50): so that, in springing the luff, she meets the wave which comes from to windward. LYING-TO UNDER A MAINSAIL.
THE ship does not, in this situation, fall off so easily as in the last-mentioned mode, because its effect passes abaft the center of gravity of the ship (§ 41); but it keeps the ship more to the wind, and consequently occasions less lee way. LYING-TO UNDER THE MIZEN.
UNDER the mizen, ships keep better to the wind, than under any other sail, because it is farther abaft the center of gravity (§ 40.) than any of the rest; consequently ought to keep the vessel from drifting more than any of the others; but it is inconvenient, should you have occasion to veer suddenly. LYING-TO UNDER THE MAIN STAYSAIL.
UNDER the main staysail a ship will not make so much leeway as under a fore sail, because its effort passes very near the center of gravity; but it will however cause her to drift more (§ 31.) than the main sail (§ 41): so that this mode of lying-to is a mean between the two others, and is preferable when it blows strong enough for that sail to support the rolling of the ship. It ought likewise to be preferred, because the ship will veer under that sail, the action of which passes at a small distance from the center of gravity (§ 31), and the power of which overcomes the resistance which all ships meet from the fluid under their lee; a resistance which always gives them a great inclination to fly up in the wind, when it blows hard, or when under a heavy press of sail. LYING-TO UNDER THE FORE, MAIN, AND MIZEN STAYSAILS.
ALL the preceding modes of lying-to have their peculiar faults; but the preferable way is under the fore staysail, the main staysail, and mizen staysail; because, under these sails, the ship will steer (§ 46), and is in a better situation for veering than under any other sail; for, only haul down the mizen staysail, and put the helm a-weather; when the two other sails, being before the center of gravity, (§ 30, & 31.) will cause her to fall off; she will then soon gather way, and steer easily. |
Should the gale continue very hard, and one of these staysails be blown away, the loss is not of much consequence, as the courses, in case of an emergency, are ready to set; whereas the courses are not so readily replaced, when lost. This mode, therefore, appears preferable in every respect., whether you wish to veer, or keep your wind: because, if the ship does not sufficiently keep the wind, you may haul out the balanced mizen (§ 40), or take in the fore staysail (§ 31), or even the main staysail. One of these staysails, before the center of gravity of the ship, is sufficient to make her veer as soon as the after ones are suppressed. There are, besides, these following considerations for so doing. The ship will carry sail better; because, as the center of effort of those on her is very low, she drifts less, holds a better wind, and goes faster through the water (§ 25, & 46); and these three or four sails are so situated as to give the whole body of the ship play; which will strain her less than when under one single sail, which cannot by itself work it from aft forward. DEMONSTRATION.
THE object of lying-to being to keep to windward as much as possible, when foul winds, and tempestuous weather, prevent you from pursuing your course, it follows, as much sail should be carried, as is consistent with safety; and, as you are often unable to set more than one sail, it is trimmed sharp, that the ship may keep her wind as much as possible. It is likewise for this reason that the helm is at the same time put a-lee; because the ship having but very little way (§ 46), falls off, in yielding from time to time to the impulse of the wind, which unceasingly acts on her; but, as soon as she has fallen off, she is brought-to again by the effect of the rudder (§ 50), which must act upon her if the water has the smallest power upon it. The same happens in lying-to under the three staysails (though the ship makes more headway under any other sail), because the effect of these sails is better distributed (§ 46.) than when one only is set; notwithstanding they have not power enough to procure the ship much velocity, nor to make her steer properly; the helm is therefore put a-lee as in lying-to under any other sail. It is always more advantageous to keep the ship under way and lively, than to let her lie motionless, at the mercy of the wind and waves. When the wind is so violent that no sail can be carried, you lie-to a-try; that is to say, under bare poles and ropes, which serve instead of sails, and lash the helm a-lee as usual. OF SOUNDING IN FAIR WEATHER, WHETHER CLOSE HAULED OR GOING LARGE.
close hauled.
IF close hauled, brail up the mizen and mizen staysail; let go the main sheet that the sail may shiver; put the helm a-lee; and back the mizen topsail by bracing it square. The head sails, as well as the jib and staysails, are to be kept in their first situation; recollecting to haul tight and belay the
* Should the sea run too high for the lower stay-sails to keep the ship steady, a close-reefed main-topsail (particularly if it has four reefs in it to come close down to the cap) will be found to answer the purpose admirably. |
lee braces. When the ship has nearly lost her headway, though continuing still to come to the wind, you catch that moment to heave the lead; and it is to be hauled in again with all possible dispatch. To fill again, haul aft the main sheet; trim the mizen topsail, and right the helm. going large.
IN going large, you have only to put the helm a-lee, to brail up the mizen, and to belay the lee braces quite tight, to prevent the yards having too much play when the sails are shivering. It is impossible to tack in this situation, as the jib and head sails are always in action (§ 31); and the square sails soon coming to shake, on account of their sheets not being tacked, they lose all their power; and the ship is soon at a stand. DEMONSTRATION.
THE mizen and mizen staysail are brailed up, because their effect to bring the ship to the wind would be too powerful (§ 40). For the same reason the main sheet is let go (§ 41), though there is another reason for it, which is, that it destroys the equilibrium that existed between the sails forward and the sails aft (§ 46, 49); whence the rapidity of sailing is diminished, as well as the effect of the helm, which acted (§ 50.) to bring the ship to the wind, while at the same time it opposes her velocity (§ 59). The mizen topsail is braced a-back, to impel the ship a-stern in the direction of her length (§ 36); so that her headway being now much diminished, the ship, by the effect of the rudder, ranges to the wind so far as to shake the main topsail and the sails on the foremast, which, to that very moment, had acted to keep up the celerity of sailing (§ 32. 41). But, as the effect of the rudder is very faint, since the velocity of the ship is greatly diminished (§ 58), when the sails have lost their action, the ship must stop, and is not able to come sufficiently to the wind, to bring her about, because the jib and staysail sheets being hauled aft, oppose the effect of the helm; so that she rests as it were motionless for an instant, which must be seized to throw the lead with the greatest dispatch; because, should the ship fall off by the effect of her jib and staysail, which are the only ones in action, the other sails might suddenly fill and give her headway, which would prevent you from getting soundings, were you too dilatory in throwing the lead. Whether you do, or do not, find any bottom at all, in hauling in your line as fast as possible, you must seize the opportunity of the ship’s falling off, to fill and stand on again. If the ship, in spite of the disposition given her, should come head to wind, (which could only happen from her having preserved some velocity,) the helm must be kept a-lee, but the head sails should quickly be laid square, and the jib and staysails hauled down; then the ship will soon after be found to veer. ANOTHER METHOD PREFERABLE TO THE FORMER.
GOING LARGE.
BRACE the head sails square, haul down the jib and staysails, without stirring the after sails, and put the helm a-lee. While the ship has still a little headway, heave the lead from the place where you haul it in; that lead will go first a little a-stern; but the ship being head to wind, will soon herself go a-stern right upon the line; and, as the helm is a-lee, the ship easily veers. But, if you wish to keep her to longer, right the helm, and haul the mizen out, to prevent the ship’s falling off. If you have studding sails set, they must be hauled down, particularly the lower ones; because, should the wind take them a-back, their power on the boom might bring the ship round entirely: |
for, they act on a lever without the ship, the fulcrum of which is on the outside of the vessel before the center of gravity. If, however, the helm is continued a-lee till the ship falls off, she will not come about, because then the vessel goes a-stern with great velocity, and the rudder acts powerfully to make her veer; but the fact is, that the ship will go a great deal sternway, and continue so much longer. close hauled.
IF close hauled, or a very little from the wind, the helm is to be put a-lee; and, the instant the sails are taken a-back, the head sails are to be filled by briskly bracing them square, without waiting for the wind being right a-head; then, a little before the ship has lost her way, heave the lead from the place where you haul it in, and then proceed as before. ON SHIPS DRIVING
WHEN it happens that there is not sufficient room to work in a tide’s way, through a crowd of ships, or in a narrow channel, but that a ship must drive by the help of the tide, it may be done, provided the tide be strong enough, in proportion to the wind. This art consists of keeping the ship in a fair way, by a management of the rudder and the sails. TO DRIVE TO WINDWARD, WHEN THE WIND IS AGAINST THE TIDE.
IF the channel is sufficiently broad, the ship should be drifted broad side to the wind, as the tide will then have the greatest power on her; and, could the ship be backed a-stern or shot a-head at pleasure, she might be kept drifting upon the same tack with safety; but ships in a tide’s way can never be backed so far a-stern as they will shoot a-head. At the first of a stern-board a ship will go briskly a-stern, but will soon fall off, and drift with the wind abaft the beam, forging a-head; for this reason she must be drifted with the helm a-lee. It follows, as a ship will shoot more a-head than she can be backed a-stern, that she will at length arrive at the opposite shore, when she must be stayed or veered, and drifted upon the other tack. If she is to be stayed, (which is preferable, because less drift will be lost by it,) let the sails be filled in time, to give the ship sufficient headway to bring her about; then put the helm a-lee. Should she come about, the sails and helm, having now a proper position for a stern-board upon the other tack, need not be touched till her sternway ceases, when the helm must be shifted a-lee; but, should the ship refuse stays, then brace sharp round the head yards, and box-haul her, by which method she will lose much less drift than by veering. If the ship, now drifting broad-side, is approaching a narrow channel, where drifting in this she must be veered and dropped stemming the tide, stem foremost. In this case, that the |
drift may be as much as possible, it will be necessary to take in sail, and reduce the ship’s headway till she has only steerageway left; thus a vessel may be dropped through a fleet of ships at anchor without danger. TO DRIVE, WHEN THE WIND IS ACROSS THE TIDE.
SHOULD the wind be a little across the tide, a ship may be easily drifted in the fair way, with her head towards the weather shore; for thus it will be found that she can be backed and filled at pleasure, and generally be drifted with the sails shivering, in which position they oppose least power to prevent the drift. It frequently happens in serpentine rivers that the tide sets across; in this case the ship must be drifted with her head to the side from which the tide sets. These sets are best discovered by observing the opening or shutting of two objects in the direction of the channel. TO BEND A COURSE IN FAIR WEATHER.
STRETCH the sail a-thwart the deck, the starboard side of the sail to the starboard side, the larboard to the larboard side; then bend yard ropes to the earing cringles, and make fast the head earings a few feet up upon the yard ropes. The bunt-lines, leech-lines, clue-garnets, and all the geer bent, make fast a rope-band to each bunt-line and leech-line leg, that the men may be enabled to catch the head of the sail from the yard. Now man well the yard ropes, bunt-lines, leech-lines, and clue-garnets, and run the sail up to the yard. The sail aloft, send the hands up to bring it to, and let them haul out the weather earing first, then the lee; and if it is a new sail, let them ride the head rope to stretch it. The sail being hauled square out upon the yard, make fast the rope-bands, keeping the head of the sail well upon the yard. TO BEND A TOPSAIL IN FAIR WEATHER.
OVERHAUL the leeches of the sail, put in the earings, bend the bowline legs, lay out the clues, and open them if necessary, and make the sail up snug again; then round down upon the lee top-sail haliards till the weather fly block is high enough to bring the sail up over the guard iron: then rack the tie over to the weather rigging. Now pile the sail upon slings, with the lee side uppermost; hook on the topsail haliards, and run the topsail up into the top; then stretch the sail round the fore part of the top, bend the jeer, and make fast the head earings a few feet up upon the reef tackle pendents, with a rope-band or two to each bunt-line leg. The jeer being bent, man the reef tackles, buntlines, and clue-lines, and haul out the sail. Now let the hands lay out upon the yard, and haul out the weather earing first; then haul out to leeward, and ease off to windward till the sail is square, when make fast the rope-bands, keeping the head of the sail well up upon the yard. |
UPON SETTING AND TAKING IN SAILS IN BLOWING WEATHER.
TO SET A MAIN SAIL.
BEFORE the sail is loosed let the double block of a tackle be made fast to the weather clue, and the single block be hooked low down upon the chestree, and the fall led aft. Then man well the main tack and fall at the same time; and, when the sail is loosed, ease away the weather clue-garnet, let go the bunt-lines and leech-lines, bowse down upon the tackle and take in the main tack: the main tack being down, haul aft the sheet, brace up the yard, and haul the main bow-line. TO SET A FORESAIL.
A FORE sail is set after the same manner as a mainsail; but, as the fore tacks generally lead double, they are a sufficient purchase without the aid of a tackle to the weather clue. TO SET A TOPSAIL.
LET a tackle be in readiness to clap on either sheet, as may be required. First, man the lee sheet, and the sail being loosed, ease down the bunt-lines and weather clue-line, and haul home the lee sheet; then haul home the weather sheet, hoist the sail, and brace up as required. Should the wind be quartering, the lower and topsail yards should be braced well into the wind, before the sail is sheeted home. TO TAKE IN A COURSE.
MAN well the weather clue-garnet, ease off the tack and bow-line, and run it up; then man the lee clue-garnet, bunt-lines, leech-lines, and weather brace; and, being all ready, ease away the sheet, haul up the clue-garnet, bunt-lines, and leech-lines, and round in the weather brace, till the yard is pointed to the wind. Then haul tight the trusses, braces, lifts, and rolling tackle, and let the hands furl the sail. TO TAKE IN THE FORESAIL IN THE TIME OF VEERING.
WHEN the ship begins to veer, the yard being kept braced sharp up, let go the tack and bowline, and haul up the weather clue-garnet. When the ship is nearly before the wind, the bunt and leech lines, and the other clue-garnet, may be hauled up; and, if the situation admits of it, and occasion requires, the ship may be steered with the wind on the quarter, till the sail is secured. |
TO TAKE IN A TOPSAIL.
THERE are many opinions upon the best mode of performing this. Some approve of clueing up to windward first, and others to leeward. If the weather side is to be clued up first, the weather brace must be rounded well in, and the yard got close down upon the lifts, otherwise the lee rigging will be in danger of being carried away by the great pressure of the lee yard-arm. If the weather brace can be rounded well in, and the yard be got close down, it will be best to clue up to windward first, for thus the sail may be taken in without a shake; but, if the weather brace cannot be hauled in to ease the yard off the lee rigging, recourse must be had to clueing up to leeward first. In this case, it will be best, if hands can be spared, to man both the clue-lines, bunt-lines, and weather brace at the same time; thus, when the lee sheet is eased off, the weather brace may be hauled in with ease, and the yard laid to the wind; and, when the lee clue-line is half up, ease off the weather sheet, and run up the weather clue-line; then haul tight the lee brace, bowse tight the rolling tackle, and furl the sail. TO TAKE IN A JIB.
MAN well the down-haul, let go the haliards, ease off the sheet, and haul down briskly; and, when the sail is close down, ease away the out-haul, and haul the sail in to the bowsprit cap; then let it be stowed away in the fore staysail netting. TO HAUL IN A LOWER STUDDING SAIL.
TO haul in a lower-studding sail, blowing fresh, lead one of the sheets clear aft, and man it well; then lower away briskly the outer haliards, to spill the sail; ease off the tack, run in upon the sheet, and lower away the inner haliards as required. TO HAUL DOWN A TOPMAST STUDDING SAIL.
MAN well the deck sheet and downhaul, ease off the yard sheet, and haul the yard close out to the tack block; then ease away the tack; and haul down both upon the deck sheet and downhaul. TO BRAIL UP AND HAUL DOWN A MAIN TOPMAST STAYSAIL.
MAN well the lee brail and downhaul, having a few hands to gather in the slack of the weather brail; then let go the haliards, ease off the sheet, and haul down and brail up as briskly as possible. When the sail is down, let go the tack, and stop the sail over to the lee fore rigging. |
TO BRAIL UP A MIZEN.
MAN well the lee brails, and in particular the throat brails, which should have a whip purchase; ease off the mizen sheet, and brail up briskly, taking in at the same time the slack of the weather brail. After the sail is hauled up, stop its foot by passing the gasket round to leeward, which will spill it. TO TAKE IN A TOPGALLANT SAIL.
THE lee sheet must be started first; for, if the weather sheet is first eased off, the yard will fly fore and aft. TO UNBEND A COURSE.
FIRST furl the sail, then cast off the rope bands, and make them fast round the sail, clear of the gaskets. When the rope bands are all off, ease off the lee earing, and lower down the sail; and, when the people upon deck have got hold of the lee part of the sail, ease away the weather earing. TO UNBEND A TOPSAIL.
FIRST cast off the points of the reefs, keeping fast the earings; then furl the sail, and cast off the rope bands, which make fast round the sail, clear of the gaskets. After this cast off the lee earings, and haul the lee side of the sail into the top; then haul in the weather side. Now unbend the reef tackle pendents, bunt-lines, and bow-lines; bight the sail snugly up together; and send it down by the clue-lines to windward or leeward, as most convenient. ON SCUDDING OR BEARING AWAY IN A STORM.
WHEN the waves run high, and sudden necessity requires to bear away, it should be considered that the lower sails forward, which the ship may be veered under when she comes before the wind, may be becalmed by the height of the waves breaking violently against the stern; and that therefore a close-reefed main topsail should be set to catch the wind, because it is a loftier sail, and may always be kept drawing full above the waves. This increases the ship’s headway so much, that the waves will not strike her abaft with so great a velocity as when her headway is less. Hence it follows, that, when going to scud before high waves, the close-reefed main topsail should be the last square sail taken in, in a laboursome ship. |
OF A SHIP OVERSET ON HER SIDE.
A COMMON, but not always a certain, method to recover ships from this dangerous situation, is to cut away the masts: however, as this expensive method may fail, stopwaters only, on the lee quarter at sea, may cause the ship to veer; or, where there is ground, an anchor or anchors dropped from the lee bow, may bring the wind a-head, and take the sails a-back, so as to cast the ship on the other tack, and bring her upright. ON CHASING
A VESSEL that chases another ought to have the advantage of sailing. We shall therefore suppose this to be the case; because, were the ship chased as good a sailer as the chaser, she never could come up with her, if they manoeuvered equally and at the same time. It is then useless to chase a ship over which you have not the superiority in sailing, unless it be found that she does not know how to take the benefit of her equality. To know if your ship sails quicker than your adversary, you must get on the same tack, under the same sails, and keep the same course with the vessel you wish to chase, and set her exactly with a compass. If you sail best, the chase will soon be drawn a point more aft; but, if she has the advantage, you will in a short time bring her a point farther forward: if you sail equally, she will remain on the point you set her at first. TO CHASE A SHIP WHICH IS TO WINDWARD, AND TO JOIN HER IN THE SHORTEST METHOD.
WHEN the chaser is to leeward of the vessel he means to pursue, he ought to run on the same tack as the enemy, till he brings her to bear exactly perpendicular to his course, if he has not however already passed that point: then tack and continue the second board till he brings the chase again perpendicular to the direction on which he is standing by the wind, and he must then heave about again; always continuing the same manoeuvre, by tacking every time he brings the chase perpendicular to his course on either board. In this manner, the chaser will, by the superiority only of his sailing, join the other by the shortest method. DEMONSTRATION.
WHEN the ship A (fig. 20.) chases the ship B, which is three leagues to windward, A having one fourth of advantage in sailing, the chaser is not to tack till he reaches the point C; because then the |
ship B will be right on his beam at the point D. He then runs on the tack C E, till he brings the chase again perpendicular to his course at the point F. The ship A is to continue working thus every time she brings the vessel B right a-breast of her, whether the chase continues on the same tack or not; and thus the chaser will join the other at H, so that she will be able neither to change her course nor fly from him. You continue on the same tack as the enemy, when first seen, in order to lose no time; because you will always bring the ship you are in chase of right on your beam, when you have a superiority of sailing, whatever may be the tack she is on, provided you are careful not to pass that point; but, if perchance you should, you must get on the other tack with all possible dispatch. The chaser heaves about as soon as the vessel he is in pursuit of is on his beam; because she is, at this time, at the shortest possible distance, if he chases on the same tack and steers the same course with the vessel chased. If the chaser runs on a different tack from the vessel chased, he is still to tack when the latter is on his beam, because the distance is the least possible between them on the different boards they hold. This mode is preferable to all others, it not only being the shortest, but because you force the chase to fly from you close upon a wind, pressing her more and more from the leeward, by never passing the point at which the distance between the two vessels, in plying to windward, is the shortest possible. OBSERVATIONS FOR THE SHIP TO WINDWARD, WHICH IS CHASED.
THE weather ship, which flies, will always be joined by the chaser, since it is granted that she does not sail so well as the pursuing vessel. It is therefore her advantage constantly to keep one course without losing time to heave about, as tacking cannot be so favourable to her as to her adversary, whose sailing is superior. If the chaser should mistakingly stand on a long way, and tack in the wake of the chase, the best thing she can do is to heave in stays, and pass to windward of him on the other tack, unless you suppose your vessel would have a large superiority. If the chaser persists in tacking in the wake of the other ship, the chase will be very much prolonged. TO CHASE A SHIP WHICH IS TO LEEWARD.
WHEN to windward of a vessel you wish to chase, keep the ship away, to cut her off; and, steering continually on that course, you come at last together at the point where the courses run by the two vessels intersecting each other. This will be exactly executed by the chasing ship, if, in the course she has chosen, she constantly keeps chase on the same degree of the compass, as at the beginning of the pursuit. This principle applies equally to all the courses which the retreating ship steers; for overtaking can only be obtained by keeping on a strait line, which is the shortest possible that can be drawn between any two points. If you take another course than that which keeps you in the same point of bearing you were in with respect to the vessel pursued, at the beginning of the chase, you would fail, by being either too |
far a-head or too far a-stern; that is to say, if the chaser keeps his wind too close, he will be too much a-head, and consequently prolong the chase; and, if he keeps too much away, he will be too far a-stern. These are the only two considerations to be made for the performance of this manoeuvre; considerations, which are easily observed, and corrected with an azimuth compass; for when you see that at the end of a certain time you bring the chase more aft than her first point of bearing, it is evident you keep your wind too much; if, on the contrary, you draw her forward, it is a proof that you keep too much away. These errors are easily corrected, by steering, for the first case, so as to see that the chase is always kept exactly on the same degree of the compass; and, for the second, you keep your wind a little more, till you see that you rest on the same point of bearing with respect to one another. Then, it is evident, you chase by the shortest and most certain method, since you reach the chase, in running on a strait line. OBSERVATIONS FOR THE SHIP TO LEEWARD, WHICH IS CHASED.
SHE ought to run on the course that will carry her most immediately from the chaser. Some vessels have more advantage in going large than others; some with the wind right aft; and others, again, are to be found which go best close hauled. So that attention should be paid to the known qualities of a ship, in order to take the most advantageous and convenient directions capable to effect a retreat. It is, however, nearly certain, that, if the chase does not sail at least at an equal rate with the chaser, whatever manoeuvre she may practise, she will at length be overtaken by a skilful chaser adhering to principles. OF BOARDING.
BOARDING is the art of approaching the ship of an enemy so near, that you can easily, and in spite of him, throw on board the graplings, which are fixed on the lower yard-arms, at the forecastle, gangways, &c. for the purpose of being thrown into the enemy’s ship, as soon as along-side, in order to confine the vessels together, and give the people an opportunity of getting on board, to carry the adverse ship sword in hand. TO BOARD TO WINDWARD, OR TO AVOID BEING BOARDED.
IF it be desired to board a ship which keeps her wind under an easy sail; or that does not shorten sail, but over which the boarding vessel has the advantage of sailing; she must get on the |
weather quarter of the ship she means to board, within half a pistol shot. She should then begin the action, and continue it with vivacity, to cover her manoeuvre by the smoke of the cannon and musquetry of both ships; then, under the cover of this cloud, let her make more sail if she has not way enough, in order to augment the velocity of the ship and the rapidity of her movements, that she may more readily lay on board her enemy, on the weather side, either exactly a-breast or a little abaft. This is very easily executed, by edging down suddenly upon her; so, however, as not to be raked by the enemy’s fire. The ship boarded by this manoeuvre can hardly suspects the design but at the moment when, or very little before, the grapnels will be on board of her. In this situation the boarded vessel has but one doubtful expedient to try, and which even will be of no service if the boarder observes her well. For, the moment she braces sharp a-back her head sails, to cause the ship’s falling off (§37), and squares those aft (§ 36.) to give her sternway, the boarder has only to perform briskly the same manoeuvre, and they will then be both as near for boarding as before, provided the boarding ship feels quickly the impulse of her sails and helm, which ought to be put a-weather (§ 50.) and kept so till the ship’s headway ceases, when it is to be put a-lee (§ 58), to assist her in falling off, in manoeuvering as is box-hauling, in order to board the enemy to leeward; for, the boarder ought to be on the quarter of the other, since at the moment the two ships were right before the wind, she who was directly to windward, and wished to board, had only to continue her movement of rotation, and render her velocity equal to that of her adversary, by shortening sail in order not to pass her. If therefore, the circular motion is kept up by the boarder, which at first caused him to fall off, and now brings him to the wind on the other tack, he will join the enemy to leeward; for, it is evident that, if this motion of turning be more rapid than that of the ship which wishes to avoid boarding, the boarder will close her before she can range to the wind on the other tack, since the boarder comes round with greater celerity. However, if the ship which fears boarding was pressed thus closely, she could make no other attempt than to throw once more all her sails to the mast, by bracing them only perpendicular to the keel to give her sternway (§ 36), and putting the helm a-weather, to keep her to the wind, as soon as her headway ceases (§ 58); observing that, she being to windward, this manoeuvre may cause her to drive on the boarder, as he is then watching for her under her lee. As there is no other resource, necessity obliges her to this expedient; because, if the ship which is attacked could go a-stern with sufficient velocity, she might let the boarder pass a-head, veer under his stern, and rake him, if he is not as quick as the other to foresee this manoeuvre, and as nimble in manoeuvering in the same manner as the enemy’s ship: because, the great velocity with which he comes to the wind and goes a-head (his sails being still full), puts him in this bad situation, which may prevent his persisting in the inclination of boarding. It is however very clear that the boarder will attain his purpose, if he takes care to throw all his sails a-back at the same time as the ship to windward; because, the attacked ship dropping to leeward, and having sternway first, approaches a little the boarder, who has still preserved his position on the quarter, and longer kept his luff, by having gone a-stern somewhat later than the weather ship. It must be farther observed, that when the two ships are right before the wind, if the vessel which fears boarding moves quicker to the wind than the one which attacks, she will avoid it, as the retreating ship will be close to the wind before the other, and able to get a-head of her by making all sail to keep her wind, or to heave in stays and get upon the other tack. But, it must be considered that this last movement is disadvantageous; as, by so doing, it will present the stern to a ship, |
which no doubt will take advantage of that situation, and rake her; which might be more destructive than a well-opposed attack by boarding.There is, however, no doubt that if the ship inclined to board sails better than the other, it will always be in her power to execute that design, if she is manoeuvered as the ship which flies. TO BOARD TO LEEWARD, WHEN CLOSE TO THE WIND, OR TO AVOID BEING BOARDED.
IN order to execute this manoeuvre, the boarder is to come within pistol shot, close in the wake, or, at most, to the weather quarter of the ship he means to attack; taking care to continue steering, so as not to be raked by any of the guns which belong to the quarter he stands on. Then, to come up with his adversary, he must edge away a little, and range round aft, so close upon the enemy’s lee quarter, that his cat-head may almost touch her quarter gallery. Now, when you have shot sufficiently a-head, your ship being parallel to your adversary’s, so as to bring your forecastle abreast of your enemy’s mainmast, the mizen and mizen staysail sheets are to be hauled well aft, the helm put hard a-lee, and the head sheets let fly; then, your ship, coming rapidly to the wind (§ 44, 50, & 31), shivers her sails, and closes the opposing vessel side to side. This manoeuvre is infallible when you have the advantage of sailing, provided very great attention is paid to it. But great attention is necessary; because, if at this moment the weather ship, which wishes to avoid the boarding, either sets her courses, or lays all those flat a-back which she had set, she may perchance break the grapnels if you have neglected to trim your sails in the same manner as hers: for, by making more sail, if the wind be a little fresh, she will shoot a-head through the water, and drag the boarder with such force as to break the chains or hawsers by, which the two ships are confined together. By laying all flat to the mast, the boarded vessel is still more likely to succeed, since the sails of one ship will be full, while those of the other are a-back. This mode of boarding may, as shewn before, be anticipated and avoided, if the boarder does not pay the strictest attention to his own as well as to his adversary’s manoeuvres: but it may be still more readily avoided; if the last mentioned vessel braces her head sails sharp a-back, setting only, if necessary, the fore sail (§ 37), at the same instant laying to the mast or shivering (according to the necessity for more or less sternway) all those which are abaft, (§ 36.) and putting the helm hard a-lee (§ 58). All this is to be executed when the boarder is still about a ship’s length (more or less) a-stern of the other vessel. The quickness of this evolution, and the rapid veering of the weather ship, may bring the boarding vessel, which is a little to leeward or a-stern of the other, into the most dangerous situation, if she does not manoeuvre in the same manner and with equal celerity; as the boarder’s sails, being full, keep up his velocity, and may, before he can veer, engage his bowsprit in the main shrouds of the enemy, who pays short round on her head. This terrible and dangerous situation is infinitely to be dreaded; and it is of the highest importance to pay the strictest attention to your own manoeuvres, and to those of your opponent, which you are to endeavour to foresee and avoid as much as possible. It is easy to conceive, that if you wish to board a ship, and to engage the enemy’s bowsprit in your main shrouds, you need only get a little to windward of her, and about one or two ships lengths a-head, more or less, as (from the knowledge you have of the celerity of your ship’s move- |
ments) may be judged sufficient; then brace sharp a-back the head sails, shiver the after ones, or lay them flat to the mast, with the helm a-lee. This manoeuvre, well executed, and covered by a brisk fire, will commonly succeed; but care must be taken not to come round too soon, but to range very close to your adversary; because, if you should not be a-head enough of him, you might fail in boarding, by paying too short round, and then you would infallibly get your bowsprit foul of his fore shrouds, which would be highly disadvantageous. If you should find yourself too far a-head, the design will be frustrated, by your passing under the bowsprit of the enemy, who will however be thereby exposed to be raked at his head, if he does not manoeuvre in the same manner and with equal swiftness as the boarding vessel, which has the great advantage of priority. It is absolutely necessary to range very close to the ship whose bowsprit you wish to engage in your rigging; because, if you attempted to execute this at only a ship’s length large and to windward of your opponent, he has only, the instant he perceives your design, to put the helm hard a-lee and heave in stays, if he does not choose to act in the same manner as you do. If this last method is properly executed, the two ships can only range very near each other and exchange their broadsides, and the lee ship will immediately gain the wind of her adversary. Therefore, to execute this manoeuvre well, the vessels must be nearly yard-arm and yard-arm. If the boarder be at a certain distance aft on the weather quarter, the ship wishing to avoid boarding must heave in stays, as soon as the other vessel is in the act of veering, in order to close her to leeward. By this manoeuvre they will find themselves head to head, so that they may fire reciprocally their broadsides, in passing on opposite directions, and the lee ship; will get to windward. TO BOARD WITH THE WIND LARGE.
IF two ships engage with the wind large, the boarding vessel should keep as close as possible on the lee quarter of the ship she means to attack thus, that she may execute this design, as has been shewn before, by coming rapidly to the wind, and being careful not to pass a-head of her opponent. The weather ship, to avoid being boarded, must act on her part as was directed in the preceding article, according to circumstances. A ship may also be boarded on the weather side, by conforming to what has been said of boarding to windward. When two vessels are engaged, with the wind right aft, the ship desirous of boarding ought to drop a-stern of the enemy, in order to run up close along-side of him, if the boarder has the advantage of sailing; for, as she then advances towards her adversary, her adversary can only endeavour to range rapidly to the wind on the other tack, as soon as the bowsprit of the boarder is a-breast of her stem, and thus gain the wind, in order to be in a situation to extricate herself more easily by a good manoeuvre. The boarding vessel should be permitted to come abreast of the stern of her adversary, before she hauls her wind; because, if she were to do this sooner, the ship a-stern, at a small distance, would board her perfectly well, even if they sail equally swift, since the boarder would be to windward, would run large longer than the other, would range more slowly to the wind, and continue to stem |
a-head of the flying ship. What makes this more evident is, that the boarder coming from windward preserves longer his velocity, trimming his sails only as the ship comes to the wind, and cuts the course of his adversary with a line less curved than that described by the retreating ship. If, by coming too soon or too fast to the wind, the boarder chose to abandon his design, he might do so by veering a few points on the other tack, and shortening sail; so that the retreating ship will shew her stern, and the boarder can then rake her by passing under her stern. When you attack a ship closely to leeward, you may keep away a little, when you are a-breast of her, seeming to yield under her fire. If this should induce the opposing ship to veer, in order to keep you more under her guns, you have only to heave rapidly to the wind, by putting the helm a-lee, trimming all sharp abaft, and suppressing the effect of the head sails; all of which is to be done in the same instant you perceive the enemy bears down upon you. The quickness of this manoeuvre, and the priority of the movement you gain thus on your enemy, will soon close the two ships; and if proper attention be paid, and the distance well measured, it may happen that the enemy’s bow sprit will be entangled in your fore or main rigging; which would be a most advantageous thing in your attempt to board. But much confidence must not be placed in this, as you do not frequently meet with persons so easily duped: it may even happen that you will no longer be able to attempt the boarding, if the weather ship, instead of bearing away, plied to windward more and more; for this feint manoeuvre may take you too far off to leeward of your adversary. If you should happen to be a ship’s length to leeward, and about the same distance a-head of the vessel with which you are engaged, you may, under cover of a heavy fire, heave in stays. By this manoeuvre you come right athwart the enemy’s hawse, rake him fore and aft, and board him, his bowsprit being right over your gangway: nor can he possibly avoid your broadside; for, if he heave all a-back and make a-stern board, which is his only resource, he may avoid being boarded, but will always be in a very bad situation. BOARDING AT AN ANCHOR.
IF it be intended to board a ship which is at an anchor, riding head to wind, it must be executed under sail; for if you cannot approach the enemy but by towing yourself a-head, you will never be able to board her against her will; since it will always be in her power to annoy the boats which are laying out the tow lines. It ought not therefore to be attempted, unless you are underway. To perform this with success, you must be sufficiently to windward to approach her by a little falling-off, without exposing your stern to her fire, which she could play on you with great advantage in this situation. Supposing therefore the boarder to be thus to windward, so as to be able to approach his opponent at anchor, the assailant ought to stop his headway, by taking a-back his mizen topsail and fore staysail, and, when about a ship’s length a head of the vessel he means to board, let go an anchor; then work in such a manner that, as soon as the mizen topsail is taken a-back, the mizen close aft, the topsails clued up, and the fore topmast staysail hauled down, he may come head to wind, and veer away cable till, by falling off, he comes board and board with his opponent, who is still riding at her moorings, and who at that instant ought also to be raked by the boarder. |
The boarding ship has no other way of manoeuvering but this; because, as soon as the anchor is gone, the ship acquires sternway, and when the cable is checked she comes head to wind, in which she is greatly assisted by the mizen and mizen topsail, which impel her stern to leeward (§ 40, & 44.) till the wind is right in the direction of the keel; and, as the cable is veered away till exactly alongside the ship at anchor, her own anchor being right a-head of the vessel she means to board, it follows that, as soon as the boarding ship comes head to wind, she is in a proper situation to throw her grapnels, and send her crew on board of the other, if they are the strongest. The ship at anchor should never wait for the enemy in that situation, which is always disadvantageous, and there is always much greater probability of getting clear when underway. But, if, for some unforeseen cause, you are obliged to continue at anchor, you are to take advantage of the moment when the ship which attacks lets go her anchor, to cut the cable by which you ride. By this manoeuvre you fall athwart, rake your adversary, avoid being boarded, and bring up with your lee anchor. Besides, if time will admit before the attack, you should not neglect to cast two springs out, one on each side of the cable by which the vessel rides, if you have not had time before to lay out two anchors, in order not to be surprized, in case the ship which attacks has it in her power to pass on either side of you : and, when you perceive for which side she is determined, you heave on the spring which is on the same side she has let go her anchor if she be a-head, and on the opposite if she be a-stern, veering out at the same time the other spring and cable, till you bring the assailant right a-breast of you. Then, you may rake him at pleasure; as he has no way of getting out of this dangerous situation. His only course would be to prevent this danger, by having a spring also; and, under cover of a brisk fire, veer upon that spring and cable to lay his enemy handsomely on board. But if he has neglected this precaution, he must cut his cable, and drop on board of the ship to leeward; who, on the other hand, has no way to avoid being boarded, but by cutting, to get underway, or to run on shore. It is always easy to board a ship at anchor, when the wind will allow you to approach her under sail; and the best way to proceed, is to run her along-side, or to bring-to to windward of the ship you wish to attack, keeping her exactly to leeward of you; then drift on board of her, by trimming your sails in such a manner, as to keep as near as possible, your broadside opposite to that of the adverse ship. Annoying her with your guns till you can close her, and your constant cannonading may prevent her fire being so well served as it might otherwise be. When you are underway, and purpose to board a vessel moored, let go an anchor at the time of boarding: for, if the ship attacked should at this moment cut her cables to drive on shore, this would prevent your running a-ground together. 
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NAVAL TACTICS. |
NAVAL TACTICS.
INTRODUCTION.
THE progression of nautical science ends at naval tactics; a science, which, however humanity may deplore the necessity of it, is essential to the protection of a maritime nation. The art of war at sea is limited by the possibilities of navigation; and it is therefore much less capable of that variety of stratagem which belongs to the hostility of armies. But, although the naval warrior cannot place his fleet in ambush, nor at all times press the foe in their weakest part, let it not be supposed that contrivance and surprise are excluded from this mode of battle. No: on the contrary, they are often the protection of inferior force, and frequently end the contest of equal powers. Of this too we may be assured, that, inasmuch as the knowledge of what is possible to be accomplished may lead an enemy to discover the intention of an evolution in its very commencement; so much greater must be the talents and more acute the ingenuity of him, who can devise and execute an unexpected manoeuvre. To do this, belongs alone to genius: it cannot be learned from books; for the moment of invention is the moment of execution. Of what use then, it may be asked, are books of naval tactics? They teach the elements of that science; without a knowledge of which, no man is an officer, and no officer adequate to a command. M. Morogues is the most copious author upon this subject, and his system is the practice of the present day. Of his work, therefore, a more full translation now first appears, with every subsequent improvement on the same basis, correctly methodized. But M. Bourde de Villehuet has, in his Manoeuvrier, endeavoured to shew that a particular order of sailing, which he calls the order of convoy, is the best adapted to the purposes of naval arrangements. We have not therefore omitted, secondly, to give the system of that gentleman. And the Viscount de Grenier having suggested an art of naval war, upon principles at once new, bold, and ingenious, his work will form the third division of this Treatise. Thus all that is known may now be found in a form more systematically digested than heretofore; more complete as a whole, and more distinct in the parts. |
FLEETS.
FLEETS are generally divided into three squadrons; and, if numerous, these squadrons are subdivided into three divisions. The squadrons are denominated the van, the center, and the rear; and the divisions of each squadron bear the like denomination. In general, the center squadron is commanded by the admiral (who, indeed, directs the whole); the van by the vice-admiral; and the rear by the rear-admiral. The three squadrons of a fleet ought to be equal, in number and force, in order that one may be able as effectually to oppose the enemy as another. The business of such fleets, denominated NAVAL TACTICS, consists of evolutions, which are to preserve their own safety and produce injury to the enemy, in every possible situation. Nothing great can be effected without order; and therefore it is, that various dispositions for fleets have been devised, applicable to their different objects of either protecting commerce, crossing an ocean, or engaging an enemy. Tacticians have said, that there are five orders of sailing, one order of battle, and one order of retreat; and, as this system seems most usually practised, we in this first division of the subject, confine ourselves to the elucidation of that system; and shall hereafter give whatever deviations from it have been suggested by writers of originality and genius. Before we enter upon discussing the different orders, it is necessary to be correctly understood with regard to what is meant by the starboard and larboard lines of bearing, the manoeuvre in succession, the line a-breast, and the bow-and-quarter line.
THE STARBOARD AND LARBOARD LINES OF BEARING
ARE the two close-hauled lines, the wind being in any given point. If upon either of these lines a fleet be ranged, whatever course they steer, they will, by hauling their wind, or by tacking together, be found in order of battle; i.e. close-hauled on either the starboard or larboard tack. [Tactics, pl. I. fig. 1.] Thus, for instance, the ships on the E N E line are on the larboard line of bearing, as well as larboard tack; for it will be readily seen, that, if they haul their wind together, they will be in order of battle on the larboard tack. But the ships on the W N W line are on the starboard line of bearing, though running on the larboard tack; and, when they tack together, they will be in order of battle on the starboard tack. Hence we see, that ships may be on one tack, but different line of bearing; and, accordingly as they are ranged for thus readily forming the order of battle, they are said to be either In line of bearing for the starboard tack, or In line of bearing for the larboard tack. |
TACTICS. PLATE I.
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MANOEUVRE IN SUCCESSION
IS performed by a fleet, when, ranged in one of the orders of sailing, and standing on the same line, the same manoeuvre is successively performed by every ship, as she arrives at the wake of the van ship of the whole fleet (if in one line), or of the van ship of her particular division (if divided into squadrons). So that a fleet tacks or veers, bears away or comes to the wind, in succession, when all the ships of every line execute, one after another, the same manoeuvre on the same point of the wake of the leading ship. In all successive movements great attention should be paid to the ship a-head. THE LINE A-BREAST
IS formed when the ships sides are all parallel to each other, on a line which crosses their keels at right angles. This line is most commonly used with the wind right aft, so that the line forms a perpendicular with the direction of the wind. THE BOW-AND-QUARTER LINE
IS formed by ships being ranged on the bow and quarter of each other. This will always be the case, when the whole fleet, being in order of battle, have either tacked or borne away together. In Tactics, pl. I. fig. 1. the ships on the W N W line are in bow-and-quarter line; for it is evident that, upon re-tacking, they would form in order of battle: and those which are bearing away on the E N E line are likewise in bow-and-quarter line, and would equally form in order of battle, upon hauling their wind. THE ORDERS OF SAILING.
THERE are five orders of sailing. To judge which is the best, we should consider in which the course of the fleet is the least impeded, and from which the order of battle can be most easily and quickly formed. Upon this principle, experience determines in favour of the fifth order, which is accordingly in most general practice. Of the others, however, we shall give explanations, so that correct ideas may be entertained of their relative advantages and defects; and we shall likewise explain such of their manoeuvres as are ever practised. FIRST ORDER OF SAILING.
THE fleet is ranged on one of the lines of bearing, steering at the same time their proper course. [Tactics, pl. I. fig. 2.] This order extends the fleet too much, rendering a communication between the van and rear difficult to be preserved. When ships do not steer in the wake of each other, they cannot so commodiously |
preserve the line; and the motions of a fleet, thus extended, are rather slow. This form can only be of service when in sight of an enemy, for the execution of some particular evolutions, and for the more readily forming in order of battle. THE SECOND ORDER OF SAILING.
THE fleet is ranged on a line perpendicular to the direction of the wind, steering at the same time their proper course. [Tactics, pl. I. fig. 3.] This is by no means preferable to the first; because, possessing all its defects, it has this additional one, that each headmost ship, in tacking, is in great danger of falling on-board her next a-stern, especially if the line is somewhat close. THE THIRD ORDER OF SAILING.
THE whole fleet is ranged on the sides of an obtuse angle of 135 degrees, formed by two lines upon a wind, the admiral making the angular point to leeward: and thus the fleet may continue on any course. This order, which is not without defects, is preferable to the other two. It collects the ships closer together, but still gives too great an extent for the sailing form of a fleet. [Tactics, pl. I. fig. 4.] THE FOURTH ORDER OF SAILING.
THE fleet is divided into six columns; two for the van, two for the center, and two for the rear. [Tactics, pl. I. fig. 5.] Each commanding officer is in the middle, a-head, and to leeward, of his two columns. The commanders, ranged upon the two close-hauled lines, have their squadrons astern of them, upon two lines parallel to the direction of the wind; the first ships of each column being, with respect to the commander of their squadron, the one on his starboard, the other on his larboard quarter. The distance of the columns should be such as to permit the fleet to reduce itself easily to the third order of sailing, to pass from that to the order of battle. The deficiency of this order would be easily seen, if the fleet were in sight of an enemy. It requires too much time to reduce it to order of battle; a movement which ought to be executed with promptitude and facility. It is, besides, liable to be broken in sailing; because it is difficult for the ships to preserve their proper bearings with each other. THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING.
THE fleet is divided into three columns, each of which is ranged on a line parallel with that close-hauled line upon which they are to form the order of battle. [Tactics, pl. I. fig. 6.] Regularly, the van guard forms the weather column, commanded by the vice-admiral; the center division, |
commanded by the admiral, forms the center column; and the rear-guard, commanded by the rear-admiral, is the lee column. But this disposition of the columns is sometimes changed, to answer particular purposes. Two things are principally to be observed, to keep this order regular; the columns and the vessels should preserve their proper distances. The commanders of each division, and each second, third, &c. ship are to keep themselves reciprocally a-breast of each other; each likewise observing, with regard to her immediate leader, the distance prescribed by the admiral. The distance between the columns will be correct, if the first ship of one column and the last ship of the next column form an angle of 22° 30', or two points, with the line on which they are moving. This order is more practised, because it unites in itself the advantages of all the others, without their defects. The fleet, thus collected closer together, can better observe signals, and is more readily changed into order of battle. In this order, the divisions, observing the same arrangement, may be formed in two or three columns, if the fleet be very large. [Tactics, pl. I. fig. 7.] Each chief of a division will then place himself at a little distance before, in the middle, and at the head of his division. The ships, in this as in the other orders, may keep their proper course. A PRINCIPLE FOR REGULATING THE DISTANCE OF THE COLUMNS.
TO determine what ought to be the distance between the columns, their length must be known. [Tactics, pl. I. fig. 8.] Then raise C G perpendicular to C F, making them equal to each other, in order to draw F G, that you may make F H = C F; and thus you will have G H as the distance of the columns. So that the lines A E and B F, being drawn from the rear of the weather column to the van of the leeward column A D, will be perpendicular to the direction of the wind W. DEMONSTRATION.
SINCE the van C and the rear E are equally to windward, E C is perpendicular to the direction of the wind W; and the angle B F C = E C F, is 22°. 30'; therefore E C F is also the half of the angle C F G of the right-angled isosceles triangles C G F: therefore the triangles B H F and B C F are similar and equal, and the line B C is equal to B H or H G. COROLLARY.
IT follows, that to have the distance of the columns of which the length is known, the square of the length of one column must be taken, and then doubled, in order to have the square of the hypotheneuse F G of the right-angled isosceles triangle G C F; then, from that sum take the square root by decimals, in order to come as near it as possible; and, taking from that root the length of one column, what remains then be the distance between the columns. Example. In the figure there are 4 ships in a column, at 100 fathoms distance from each other, and 46 fathoms are allowed for the length of each ship from the jib-boom end to the fly of the ensign; so that every column will be 484 fathoms long, the square of which will be 234256, and the double 468512. The nearest square root of that is 684, from which taking 484, there will remain 200 fathoms for the distance requisite between the columns. |
But the following rule is, though perhaps not so critically accurate as the preceding, sufficiently near for general practice, and less complex. The distance between the columns may be found by multiplying the length of one column by 5, and dividing the product by 12. Thus, suppose the length to be 484 fathoms; that multiplied by 5 is 2420; and, divided by 12, gives 201 fathoms for the distance between the columns. If the distance between the columns be previously given, the necessary length of them may be found in the same manner; by multiplying that distance by 12 and dividing by 5. This is only the inverse of the preceding method. But, when the columns are already formed, although not upon the preceding principle, their lengths and distance from each other may be thus found. TO FIND THE LENGTH OF A COLUMN.
ADD together the intervals between the ships and lengths of all the ships in that column. Thus, suppose 15 ships in a column:
TO FIND THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE COLUMNS.
TAKE the bearings of the leading ship of one column with the sternmost ship of the next column. This may be called the angle of position; and, suppose it were 33°. 45', or three points, it may be thus solved by trigonometry.
Or it may be thus worked by the Table of Difference of Latitude and Departure. Use the angle of position, 34° nearly, as a course; the length of a column, as Difference of Latitude; and the distance between the columns will be as the Departure. THE ORDER OF BATTLE.
IT has been found that there is no mode of preserving order in battles at sea, but by keeping upon a line not quite close-hauled, a-head of each other, and under very moderate sail. The distance between each ship varies, according to circumstances, from one-third of a cable's length to about 100 |
TACTICS. PLATE II.
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fathoms. [Tactics, pl. I. fig. 9.] The fire ships must be distributed, some a-breast of the van, center, and rear, at a convenient distance to windward, if the enemy be to leeward; or to leeward, if the enemy be to windward; and in a line with some frigates a-head and a-stern of them. Beyond these a third parallel line is formed of the hospital ships, transports, &c. with frigates a-head and a-stern. The line upon a wind is chosen for the order of battle; because, if the fleet to windward were ranged on any other line, the enemy might gain the wind of it: and, if he should not even seek to obtain that advantage, he could nevertheless choose the time and distance for engaging. The fleet to leeward, being ranged parallel to the enemy, can more readily avail itself of any shift of wind and oversight of the enemy to gain the wind; which, if it should not accomplish, it must still keep on that line, extending itself the length of the enemy's, to prevent the being forereached, as well as to avoid engaging, if necessary. The van is regularly commanded by the vice-admiral, and forms the head of the line to windward; the center is commanded by the admiral; and the rear, which is commanded by the rear-admiral, closes the line to leeward. This disposition is sometimes altered, to suit the purposes of particular evolutions. THE ORDER OF RETREAT.
THIS form (the inverse of the third order of sailing) is practised only in the presence of an enemy by an inferior fleet to leeward, when, either beaten or obliged to avoid an action, it makes choice of this disposition, rather than either of the orders of sailing; because from this order it can more easily recover the line of battle; the frigates, fire ships, transports, &c. are more completely protected; and the whole is more connectedly under the command of the admiral. [Tactics, pl. II. fig. 10.] The fleet is ranged on the two sides of the obtuse angle of 135 degrees, forming two lines upon a wind. The admiral forms the angular point to windward, and in the middle of his fleet: the fire ships, transports, frigates, &c. are placed between the two wings to leeward. The course of a retreat is generally before the wind; but the fleet may go more or less large, according to the exigency of the moment. TO FORM AND MANOEUVRE THE DIFFERENT ORDERS, WITHOUT CHANGING FROM OR INTO ANOTHER ORDER.
TO FORM THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING.
IF the fleet is in no prescribed order, and it is intended to form the order of sailing in three columns, the three leading ships of the divisions are to take their posts a-breast and to leeward of each other, keeping their wind under an easy sail. Then the ships of each squadron, making sail, will range themselves in their respective stations, a-stern of their immediate leaders, and keep the same course as they. |
TO TACK THE COLUMNS IN SUCCESSION.
THE ships of the lee columns having more distance to run before they can recover their position, must go about first, in succession. When the center leader finds himself a-breast of the leader to leeward of him, or at right angles with the close-hauled line on the other tack, upon which the lee leader is now moving, he tacks; and is followed in succession by his division. The weather column, paying the same regard to the center column, manoeuvres in the same manner. [Tactics, pl. II. fig. 11.] In this evolution the weather column still continues to windward. Should the columns have closed too much during this evolution, or be too far asunder, either of which may happen from the inequality of ships sailing, the order may be recovered either by the lee or windward column bearing away so as to make an angle of 22°. 30, or two points, between the sternmost ship of the weather column and the leader of the lee column. If this evolution is to be executed in the night, the weather column must tack first; [Tactics, pl. II. fig. 2.] and, in order to prevent the risk of one column passing through the rear of the other columns, the next column mat not tack till its leader is sensible that many ships of the columns immediately to windward are about. When about, the leaders make little sail, while their followers make successively a little more, in order to form their respective columns. But the columns which are first completely about, should either bring-to, and wait for the next, or should just keep steerage way. Thus the former weather column should wait for the center; and they both should then wait the arrival of the former lee column. In this evolution, it is to be observed, that the columns which were to windward are now to leeward. As some risk may attend the execution of this at night, it is most advisable to tack the columns together, and sail in bow-and-quarter line; because, if it became necessary to re-tack, or if the wind were to change before the completion of this evolution, much confusion might ensue. By tacking together this would be avoided. TO VEER THE COLUMNS IN SUCCESSION.
THE leader of the lee column [Tactics, pl. II. fig. 13.] veers round, and steers four points free upon the other tack, followed by the ships of that division; and, when he is clear of the stern-most ship of his division, he hauls up. The center and weather columns perform successively the same evolution, observing to continue standing on till they successively bring the point, at which the lee column began to veer, to bear in a right line to leeward of them. They likewise successively spring their luffs, when the point, at which the lee column hauled their wind, bears right to leeward. Each column having the same distance to run, if the evolution be well executed, the leaders of the windward columns will find themselves, when they spring their luffs, exactly a-breast of the leader of the lee column, and so will all the other ships. But the making or shortening sail will, at all events, rectify the inequality of sailing. TO TACK THE COLUMNS TOGETHER.
THIS evolution cannot be performed safely by all the ships at the same instant; nor yet is it necessary that one ship should finish going about, before her next puts in stays. But the sternmost ships of |
the three columns put in stays together; and, when they are observed to be so, their seconds a-head immediately put their helm down; and so on through the whole fleet. Each column will then be in bow-and-quarter line. TO PLY TO WINDWARD IN COLUMN.
THIS is best executed when the ships of the columns coincide with each other in the direction of the wind, [Tactics, pl. II. fig. 14.] and the evolution is thus performed. The three van ships of the columns tack at the same time; and the rest perform successively the same manoeuvre at the same point in the wake of their leaders a-head; so that there will be always three ships at the same instant in the act of going about. The van ships of the lee columns, being exactly in the direction of the wind with the leading vessel of the weather column, it will be found, (if the distance between the columns be regulated by the principle before laid down,) that the van of the lee columns, now on the other tack, will never cross or intersect the rear of the weather file as it advances to tack. When the van of the lee column, after having got upon the other tack, finds the center ship of the weather column to bear about half a point to windward of her, the fleet will be tolerably well posted for working to windward in succession. When all the columns have got on the other tack, the order will still be preserved. TO INTERCHANGE THE CENTER AND WEATHER COLUMNS.
THE weather and lee columns lie-to, or at most keep steerage way. [Tactics, pl. III. fig. 15.] The center column tacks together; and, forming a bow-and-quarter line, goes close-hauled to gain the wake of the weather column; it then re-tacks together, and stands on; while the weather column bears away to its new station in the center, and the lee column fills. TO INTERCHANGE THE WEATHER AND LEE COLUMNS.
THE center column braces-to. [Tactics, pl. III. fig. 16.] The lee column stands on with a press of sail; and, when its sternmost ship can pass to windward of the van of the center column, (which will be when the center ship of the lee column is on a line, perpendicular to the direction of the wind, with the van of the center column,) the lee column tacks together, and stands on close-hauled till it comes on a line with the center column, when it goes large two points to get in the station of the late weather column; and then veers together, hauling the wind on the other tack. At the beginning, however, of this evolution, the weather column bears away together under little sail, and goes large six points on the other tack, so as to get into the wake of the center column. It then hauls to the former tack, going two points large, till it ranges up a-breast of the center column, when it braces-to, waiting for the new weather column. |
TO INTERCHANGE THE CENTER AND LEE COLUMNS.
THE center and weather squadrons brace-to, or keep steerage-way, whichever is most convenient. [Tactics, pl. III. fig. 17.] The lee column tacks together, and presses sail, to gain the wake of the center column; which when they have effected, they re-tack together, and stand on. Then the center edges away under an easy sail, (steering, if it lay-to, eight points from the wind, and, if it kept steerage-way, only two points,) till it comes into the station of the lee column, where it hauls to the wind; while the weather column fills and stands on; and the order is re-established by shortening or making sail where requisite. THE WEATHER COLUMN TO PASS TO LEEWARD.
THE weather column stands on under very little sail, while the center and lee columns tack together, and carry a press of sail till they reach the wake of the weather column; [Tactics, pl. III. fig. 18.] when they re-tack, and crowd sail till they come up with the weather column; which, having (when they gained its wake) borne away two points, gains its station to leeward, and either hauls to the wind, or braces-to till the new weather and center columns come up. THE LEE COLUMN TO PASS TO WINDWARD.
THE weather and center columns brace-to, while that to leeward carries sail, [Tactics, pl. III. fig. 19.] and tacks in succession, as soon as the leading ship can weather the headmost ship of the weather column; and, when arrived upon the line on which the weather column is formed, re-tacks in succession, forms on the same line, and either braces-to or stands on under very little sail. If it braces-to, the two other columns bear away together two points, to put themselves a-breast of the column now to windward. If, however, the new weather column should stand on under easy sail, they need go large only one point to gain their proper stations. PRACTICAL METHODS OF KEEPING SHIPS IN THEIR RESPECTIVE STATIONS IN THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING, BY MEANS OF THE NAVAL SQUARE.
THE attention of the commanding officer of every ship is necessarily drawn to the preserving his ship in the station allotted to her, in whatsoever order the fleet may sail. This is greatly facilitated by a figure drawn on the quarter deck, which is called the Naval square, of which the construction is here explained. Let the square ABCD [Tactics, pl. IV. fig. 20.] be drawn upon the middle of the quarter deck; let the line E F be drawn in the direction of the keel, and draw also the two diagonals A C and D B. Now it will be found, that the angles D G E and C G E are each 135°, or 12 points, equal to the two courses close-hauled on a wind. Draw, therefore, the lines G H and G I, dividing these two angles in half; and those lines must shew the direction of the wind, when close-hauled, upon either tack. If |
TACTICS. PLATE III.
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therefore, a ship is running in the direction F E upon the starboard tack, her close-hauled course upon the larboard tack will be in the direction of the semi-diagonal G C. And, if she be running in the direction of F E upon the larboard tack, her close-hauled course upon the starboard tack will be in the direction of the semi-diagonal G D. But, to apply this more particularly to use in the order of sailing, suppose the fleet in three columns, close-hauled on either tack, the columns being
a-breast of each other.
THE seconds of each ship a-head and a-stern should be in a direction with the line E F; and the ships that are to coincide in the next columns should bear in a line with A B or D C. But, suppose the fleet, from that position, in the act of going about, the columns tacking in succession.
IN the directions before given for this evolution, the center leader is to tack, when he finds himself a-breast of the leader to leeward, or at right angles with the close-hauled line on the other tack. When, therefore, the leader to leeward bears from him in the direction of one of the diagonals B D or A C, the center leader is then at the point where he is to heave in stays. [Tactics, pl. II. fig. 11.] suppose the fleet in three columns, close-hauled; the columns coinciding in the direction of the wind, in order to beat to windward with greater facility. [Tactics, pl. IV. fig. 21.]
THE coinciding ships in the columns must be kept in the direction of G H or G I, according to the tack and wind; while the ships of each column must be in the direction of E F.
suppose the fleet in three columns in one of the lines of bearing, the ships being close-hauled on the other tack. (Tactics, pl. IV. fig. 22.]
THE ships of each column will be in the direction of one of the diagonals; while the coinciding ships in the other columns will be in the direction of the other diagonal. And this will equally be so, if the columns are in one line of bearing, and going four points large on the same tack. TO FORM THE LINE OF BATTLE.
IF the fleet is in no previous order, but promiscuously scattered, the ship which is to lead runs to leeward of the whole, and then hauls the wind, upon the tack directed, carrying an easy sail. Each ship then makes sail, according to her distance, and chases the ship which is to be immediately a-head of her the line, and hauls in her wake, in the line on which the van ship is moving. |
Each ship must carefully preserve the distance prescribed; but, should any of the fleet be so far removed from her second a-head as not to be able to chace her, without going out of her way to the line, she may then take her station discretionally in a line with the leaders, leaving a proper interval. BEING IN LINE OF BATTLE, TO FORM THE LINE ON THE OTHER TACK, WITHOUT TACKING IN SUCCESSION.
THIS is performed by all the ships of the line veering together: the rear ship hauls her wind on the other tack and stands on, while all the others go two points free on the other tack, and haul up, as they successively gain the wake of the leading ship. Thus the rear of the line becomes the van. [Tactics, pl. IV. fig. 23.]
THE LINE TO TACK IN SUCCESSION.
EITHER the headmost ship, which is going to heave in stays, should make a little more sail, or the ship which is next to tack in her wake should shorten sail a little, to increase the interval; for it often happens that one or two hundred fathoms are run over before the ship a-head has been able to fill her sails on the other tack. The exact moment when each ship should put her helm down, is when she opens the weather quarter of the ship she follows, and which has just got on the other tack. Such ships as have already performed the evolution must shorten sail, that the rest may come up, and close the line with the greatest expedition. If a ship misses stays, she is immediately to fill again on the same tack, and make sail with all possible dispatch, taking care to keep as close as possible to the wind, and not to fall off to leeward. Thus she will get a-head and to windward of those which follow her; and they will perform successively their evolutions in the wake of the ships which are already on the other tack, only standing on a little further than they would have done, if the ship a-head had not missed stays. The ship that missed stays will return sooner to her station by making all possible sail to windward of the line. THE LINE TO VEER IN SUCCESSION.
THE van ship of the line veers round, and steers four points free upon the other tack; [Tactics, pl. IV. fig. 24] and, when she is clear of the rear ship of the line, she springs her luff, and gets closehauled. The rest follow, and haul in succession. It is advisable, whenever it is necessary to spring your luff, not to give too much of the lee-helm, lest the ship should fly up too quick, and so be thrown a-stern. But, for greater caution in ships that gripe, ease off the mizen sheet; and, when the sails are trimmed and the ship under steering-command, haul aft the sheet again; but do not steer too near the wind. |
TACTICS. PLATE IV.
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THE LINE TO TACK AND RE-TACK TOGETHER.
IN tacking together, the sternmost ship of the line puts in stays; then her second a- head puts her helm down; and so on through the whole line, to prevent the ships a-head from falling on-board the ships a-stern. The fleet will then be in bow-and-quarter line; from which, if tacking together, no ship must put in stays till the ship on her weather quarter is in the act of tacking. THE LINE TO BEAR AWAY TOGETHER, PRESERVING THEIR BEARINGS FOR THE LINE.
THE rear begins this evolution; the sternmost ship bearing away first the number of points proposed; and so on, as quick as possible, to prevent falling on-board of each other. TO PLY TO WINDWARD IN LINE OF BATTLE.
ALTHOUGH a large fleet cannot gain much by plying to windward, it is often necessary to be done; nor can it be so well effected as in line of battle, for it can tack and re-tack, all together or in succession, according to the exigency of circumstances. For example, if a fleet be turning to windward between two shores, the wind blowing right through the strait, it can stand on one tack only to a certain point, if the fleet tacks together; for the ships to leeward would soon find themselves close to the shore on one tack, while the ships to windward would experience the same inconvenience on the next tack; and thus a number of short tacks would be occasioned. But, if the fleet were to go about in succession, it will make longer boards, gain more to windward, and lose less time. If the fleet have sea-room, or be turning on a coast with the wind parallel to the land, they will gain much more by all the ships going about together, by which the ships will be on one tack in bow-and-quarter line, and on the other in line of battle. Each ship going about at the same instant as the others, the fleet must get to windward as much as if a single ship was turning to windward. TO INTERCHANGE THE CENTER AND VAN SQUADRONS.
THE rear brings-to; [Tactics, pl. IV. fig. 25.] the van which is to form the center tacks and presses sail; and, when it has gained so far as to be ship to ship a-breast of the former center, (which has been standing-on, to gain the head of the line,) the van then re-tacks, and bears away a little to gain the wake of the new van. When the former van is in the act of re-tacking, the rear fills and stands on under an easy sail. |
But this evolution will be more quickly executed thus: [Tactics, pl. IV. fig. 26.] the van squadron bears away a little, and braces-to the main topsail; the center passes on to windward, edging away a little, to get a-head of the former van on the same line. The rear, coming on under an easy sail, edges away likewise, to obtain the wake of the new center squadron. TO INTERCHANGE THE CENTER AND REAR SQUADRONS.
THE van brings-to, or just keeps steerage way. [Tactics, pl. V. fig. 27.] The center tacks and presses sail; and the rear stands on. When the center finds itself ship to ship a-breast of the new center, it either re-tacks or bears away, to take its station as rear. When the new center is come up, the van, if it brought to, fills and stands on. But, if circumstances will not allow the center to tack; such as, if the fleet be in presence of an enemy to windward, or if no inconvenience will result from falling a little to leeward; the evolution may be quickly executed thus: [Tactic, pl. V. fig. 28.] The van stands on under easy sail, while the center bears away a little and braces-to, and the rear crowds sail to pass the center to windward, and get into the wake of the van. The van and center then edge away to gain the line with the new rear squadron, which then fills. TO INTERCHANGE THE VAN AND REAR SQUADRONS.
THE van and center squadrons tack together, [Tactics, pl. V. fig. 29.] the van pressing sail: the rear stands on under an easy sail. When the center comes to be a-breast of the rear, it re-tacks together, and edges away into the wake of the new van; and when the former van finds itself a-breast of the center, it re-tacks together, and bears away into the rear of the line. This evolution may be likewise executed thus: [Tactics, pl. V. fig. 30.] the van and center squadrons bear away a little, and brace-to; the van observing to bear away more to leeward than the center. The rear stands on to gain the head of the line; when the rear is come a-breast of the former van, the center fills; and, both standing on, form a-head of the new rear, by edging down upon the same line with it. By these means the fleet will fall more to leeward than in the following method. The center squadron edges away, and then braces-to; [Tactics, pl. V. fig. 31.] the van, at same time, tacks together; and the rear makes sail to gain the van of the fleet, and forms on the line with the center. The center then fills; and the former van squadron, when a-breast of the center, veers to form the rear of the line. THE VAN TO PASS AND FORM THE REAR.
THE center and rear move on; [Tactics, p1. V. fig. 32.] the van tacks together, and runs two points free, till it finds itself a-breast of the former rear. It then re-tacks together, bears away into the rear of the line, and hauls the wind. All the squadrons should carry a press of sail; but the van, which has to tack twice, should carry most. |
TACTICS. PLATE V.
|
TACTICS. PLATE VI.
|
But the more ready way to perform this is the following. [Tactics, pl. V. fig. 33.] The van squadron edges a little away, and braces-to; the other two squadrons, crowding sail, stand on till they get a-head of the new rear; and then edge away a little, to form on the line; after which the THE REAR TO PASS AND FORM THE VAN.
THE van and center squadrons tack together; the rear stands on, pressing sail. [Tactics, pl. VI. fig. 34.] When the former van finds itself ship to ship a-breast of the former rear, the van and center re-tack together; and, while they bear away for the rear of the line, the new van shortens sail. A second method, more expeditious, is this: [Tactics, pl. VI. fig. 35.] The van and center bear away a little and brace-to; the rear makes sail, passes a-head of both, and then edges away to form on the same line. TO FORM THE ORDER OF RETREAT.
IF the fleet be promiscuously scattered, the order of retreat is formed in the following manner. The admiral, or the ship he appoints to make the angular point, runs to leeward and brings-to., The rest, as they are destined in the line, run to take their stations to leeward, taking care to preserve themselves in their respective lines of bearing. For example: [Tactics, pl. VI. fig. 36.] the wind being N, the admiral brings-to W N W, starboard tack. The ships of one wing will form on his larboard bow, with their main masts bearing W S W and E N E; and the ships of the other wing will bring-to a-stern of the angular ship, with their main masts bearing W N W and E S E. When the fleet bears away before the wind, the ships will find themselves two points before each other's beams, ready to form for either tack; for the ships on the admiral's starboard bow will be in the line of bearing for the larboard tack, while those on his larboard bow will be in line of bearing for the starboard tack. TO CHANGE FROM ONE ORDER TO ANOTHER.
TO CHANGE FROM THE FIRST ORDER OF SAILING, (THE SHIPS BEING CLOSE-HAULED,) TO THE LINE OF BATTLE ON THE OTHER TACK.
THIS is effected by all tacking together; but it must be observed, that no ship is to put in stays till the ship on her weather quarter is in the act of tacking. |
TO CHANGE FROM THE FIRST ORDER OF SAILING, (THE SHIPS RUNNING LARGE,) TO THE LINE OF BATTLE ON THE SAME TACK.
ALL the ships spring their luffs together, or at least immediately after the ship next to windward. TO CHANGE FROM THE FIRST ORDER OF SAILING, (THE SHIPS BEING IN BEARING FOR ONE TACK, AND RUNNING CLOSE-HAULED ON THE OTHER,) TO THE LINE OF BATTLE, WITHOUT CHANGING THE TACK.
THE last ship of the rear, which by this evolution will become the first of the van, stands-on, pressing sail; [Tactics, pl. IV. fig. 23.] while the rest, in succession, steer for the main masts of their respective leaders, or merely bear away two points, and they will sail into the wake of the vessels a-head; when they haul up, and make sail accordingly. TO CHANGE FROM THE SECOND ORDER OF SAILING, (THE SHIPS RUNNING LARGE OR BEFORE THE WIND,) TO THE LINE OF BATTLE.
ALL the ships of the fleet haul up together on the tack directed, [Tactics, pl. VI. fig. 37.] presenting their heads on the line upon which they are ranged. The leading ship then hauls her wind, and is followed in succession by the rest. To prevent the ships being too near each other, the ships make sail as they haul their wind; or their seconds a-stern shorten sail, to open the order. If a fleet were ranged upon any other line, whatever, than that which is peculiar to the second order of sailing, these directions would equally apply for forming the line therefrom. TO CHANGE FROM THE THIRD ORDER OF SAILING, (THE SHIPS RUNNING LARGE OR BEFORE THE WIND,) TO THE LINE OF BATTLE.
THE angular ship and that wing of the fleet, which is in bearing for the tack on which the line is to be formed, spring their luffs together, and stand-on. [Tactics, pl. VI. fig. 38.] The ships of the other wing haul up together; move on perpendicular to the wind; and form in each other's wake, when they haul up for the line. TO CHANGE FROM THE FIFTH ORDER TO THE LINE OF BATTLE ON THE SAME TACK, THE WEATHER COLUMN FORMING THE VAN, AND THE LEE COLUMN THE REAR.
THE weather column brings-to; [Tactics, pl. VII. fig. 39.] the center and lee columns tack together, and go away two points free. When the center column has gained the wake of the van, |
TACTICS. PLATE VII.
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TACTICS. PLATE VIII.
|
it re-tacks together, and brings to. When the lee column has gained the rear of the line, it re-tacks together, and then all stand on. If it be intended to form the line a-head of the column to leeward, [Tactics, pl. VII. fig. 40.] the lee column brings to, or only keeps steerage way. The center makes an easy sail two points free, to get a-head of the rear squadron; while the van presses sail also two points free, to get a-head of the center division. The two preceding evolutions have their advantages in different circumstances: but the most general mode is the following. The center brings to, or only keeps steerage way; [Tactics, pl. VII. fig. 41.] The weather column bears away two points, and places itself a-head of the center. The lee column tacks together, and runs close-hauled under a press of sail, to gain the wake of the center, when it re-tacks together, and completes the line. TO CHANGE FROM THE FIFTH ORDER TO THE LINE OF BATTLE ON THE SAME TACK, THE CENTER AND LEE COLUMNS INTERCHANGING.
THE lee column stands on under an easy sail, keeping as close as possible to the wind. [Tactics, pl. VII. fig. 42.] The center brings to until it can bear down into the wake of the new center squadron; or it may veer round, and go under easy sail six points large on the other tack, and so gain the rear of the line. The weather column will, from the beginning, bear away two points under a press of sail, to reach the head of the line. TO CHANGE FROM THE FIFTH ORDER TO THE LINE OF BATTLE ON THE SAME TACK, THE WEATHER AND CENTER COLUMNS INTERCHANGING.
THE center column stands on. [Tactics, pl. VIII. fig. 43.] The lee column tacks together, and goes under a press of sail, from a little to two points large, so as just to gain the rear of the line; which when accomplished, it re-tacks together, while the weather column, bearing away eights points, will occupy the station left vacant by the new van squadron. If the line is to be formed a-head of the lee column, [Tactics, pl. VIII. fig. 44.] that squadron must bring to. The center squadron will bear away together one point, and carry sail to gain the head of the line; and the weather squadron will bear away together three points under an easy sail to gain the wake of the new van squadron. This evolution is particularly expedient when the ships of the rear squadron are very wide apart, or when some of them are very far a-stern, as it gives them time to come up, and form at their regular distances. TO CHANGE FROM THE FIFTH ORDER TO THE LINE OF BATTLE ON THE SAME TACK, THE WEATHER COLUMN PASSING TO THE REAR.
THE lee column brings to, or keeps only steerage way, as close to the wind as possible. [Tactics, pl. VIII. fig. 45.] The center column bears away together two points, and forms on the line a-head of |
the new center squadron. The weather column, veering together, and going seven points free on the other tack, will gain its station in the rear under an easy sail. TO CHANGE FROM THE FIFTH ORDER TO THE LINE OF BATTLE ON THE SAME TACK, THE WEATHER AND LEE COLUMNS INTERCHANGING.
THE lee column stands on under a press of sail. [Tactics, pl. VIII. fig. 46.] The center column bears away two points, with very little sail, to get into the wake of the new van squadron; while the weather column, bearing away eight points, and making also little sail, will gain the rear of the line. TO CHANGE FROM THE FIFTH ORDER TO THE LINE OF BATTLE ON THE SAME TACK, THE LEE COLUMN PASSING TO THE VAN.
THE lee column stands on, carrying sail. [Tactics, pl. VIII. fig. 47.] The center column bears away together eight points, under very little sail, to gain the rear of the line. The weather column bears away together three points, under an easy sail. When the weather and center columns are in the wake of the new van squadron they spring their luffs. TO CHANGE FROM THE FIFTH ORDER TO THE LINE OF BATTLE ON THE OTHER TACK.
THE weather column begins the evolution by tacking in succession. [Tactics, pl. IX. fig. 48.] The center and lee columns stand on, till their respective leaders can tack in the wake of the line, when they tack in succession. The two columns to leeward must carry an easy sail, lest they draw too near the rear of the weather column. Should that, however, be the case, let the leader of the center column be careful, and keep somewhat to leeward of the sternmost ship of the weather column; and the leader of the lee column must act in the same manner by the center column: or they may stand on beyond the wake of the column immediately to windward of them respectively, and tack to windward. They may then take their stations, and form the line with facility. TO CHANGE FROM THE FIFTH ORDER TO THE LINE OF BATTLE ON THE OTHER TACK, THE CENTER AND LEE COLUMNS INTERCHANGING.
THE weather column tacks in succession, under very little sail; [Tactics, pl. IX. fig. 49.] the center column brings to, and the lee column stands on under a press of sail. When the lee leader has gained the wake of the line, he tacks, and is followed in succession by his division. The center column is to fill |
TACTICS. PLATE IX.
|
and stand on, when its first ship and the last ship of the lee column bear from each other in a line perpendicular to the direction of the wind, or when the center ship of the lee column passes a-head of the center column. These two bearings will of course occur at the same instant, if the ships manoeuvre with precision. TO CHANGE FROM THE FIFTH ORDER TO THE LINE OF BATTLE ON THE OTHER TACK, THE WEATHER AND CENTER COLUMNS INTERCHANGING.
THE weather column brings to. [Tactics, pl. IX. fig. 50.] The center, carrying sail, stands on, and tacks in succession, when its leader is far enough to pass on the other tack at some distance ahead of the weather column; which fills when the last ship of the new van has got into her station; and tacks in succession, when the weather leader is in the wake of the van squadron. The lee column stands on, and tacks in succession in the same line with the van; but the lee column must not come up too fast, that a sufficient interval may be left for the weather column to occupy. After this evolution, which is liable to open the order too much, the admiral will probably make the signal for closing the line. TO CHANGE FROM THE FIFTH ORDER TO THE LINE OF BATTLE ON THE OTHER TACK, THE WEATHER COLUMN PASSING TO THE REAR.
THE weather column brings to. [Tactics, pl. IX. fig. 51.] The other columns make sail, and stand on, till they can pass on the other tack a-head of the column brought-to; when they tack in succession. When both columns have passed the weather column, it fills, tacks in succession, and forms the rear. TO CHANGE FROM THE FIFTH ORDER TO THE LINE OF BATTLE ON THE OTHER TACK, THE WEATHER AND LEE COLUMNS INTERCHANGING.
THE weather column brings to. [Tactics, pl. IX. fig. 52.] The lee column presses sail, and tacks in succession, when its leader can pass a-head of the weather leader. The center column, which brought to likewise, or else merely kept steerage way, fills, when its leading ship and the last ship of the lee column bear, from each other, in a line perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The weather column manoeuvres in the same manner as the center, in order to take its station as the rear guard of the line. TO CHANGE FROM THE FIFTH ORDER TO THE LINE OF BATTLE ON THE OTHER TACK, THE LEE COLUMN PASSING TO THE VAN.
THE weather and center columns bring to. [Tactics, pl. IX. fig. 53.] The lee column presses sail; tacking in succession when it can pass a-head of the weather column; and, when the last ship |
of this new van has passed to windward of the former weather column, the van squadron lessees sail, to give time for the other columns to form. The weather and center columns fill at the same time, to gain the wake of the line; when they tack in succession. OF MANOEUVERING IN THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING IN SIX OR NINE COLUMNS.
WHEN fleets are numerous, their order of sailing is usually in six or nine columns, instead of three; that is, the van is divided into two or three columns, and so are the center and rear. If the fleet be in six columns, the admirals place themselves a-breast of each other, [Tactics, pl. I. fig. 7.] somewhat a-head and in the middle of the interval of their respective columns; or, if the fleet be in nine columns, they place themselves at the head of their respective center columns. But, in either case, each squadron must manoeuvre itself in the same manner as if it were an order in three columns. It is therefore here unnecessary to enter into a more particular detail of them. We need only add, that, if the fleet be in three columns, it is easily formed in six or nine columns, if the ships which are to form the first columns of each squadron bring to, and the others bear away successively two points, or to leeward of the ships of their respective first column: and, if the fleet be in six or nine columns, it may be reduced to three, by each squadron of two or three columns manoeuvering in the same manner, as if it were a separate fleet in two or three columns changing to the line of battle. In order to shew the relative extent which is occupied by a fleet in three columns and in six, let us suppose a fleet of 60 ships. If divided into three columns of 20 ships each, distant from each other's main masts one cable's length, the length of a column will be 19 cables nearly, and the distance between the columns must be 8 cables: consequently the front of the order will be 16 cables, and the whole extent occupied by the fleet will be 304 squared cables. The same fleet divided into 6 columns of 10 ships each, will have its columns 9 cables long; and the columns being distant from each other 3 1/4 cables, the whole front will be 18 3/4 cables, and the whole extent occupied by the fleet will be only 109 squared cables. The fleet is thus in a more connected form in six than in three columns: nor is this the only advantage; for the last ship of the lee column being, in the latter case, farther a-stern than in the former, it follows that it must be more to leeward. For large fleets, therefore, this form of six or nine columns is well adapted; since their stations will be easily preserved, the signals better seen, and less time will be consumed in evolutions, particularly in reducing it to the order of battle. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE FIRST ORDER OF SAILING, CLOSE-HAULED ON THE OTHER TACK.
ALL the ships tack together, by which their tack and line of bearing will be different; that is, they will be in bearing to form the line on the tack which they have left. The sternmost ship of the line puts first in stays; and, when she is observed to be so, her second a-head immediately puts the helm down; and so on through the whole line. |
TACTICS. PLATE X.
|
TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE FIRST ORDER OF SAILING, RUNNING LARGE ON THE SAME TACK.
ALL the ships bear away together the number of points directed by the admiral, observing to keep themselves in line of bearing for the tack they are on. The sternmost ship bears away first, and so on as quick as possible, to prevent being too near each other. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE FIRST ORDER OF SAILING, IN BEARING FOR THE LINE ON THE OTHER TACK.
THE leader bears away four points to leeward, followed in succession by the rest. [Tactics, pl. X. fig. 54.] When the sternmost ship has bore away, the whole haul up, and they will be in bearing for the line on the other tack. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE SECOND ORDER OF SAILING, RUNNING BEFORE THE WIND.
THE whole bear away together ten points, [Tactics, pl. X. fig. 55.] and so proportion their sailing from the head to the rear of the line, that, when the headmost ship, which first presses sail, shall come a-breast of the second ship, the second ship adapts her sail to keep in this bearing; and so on all through; each observing to keep the ship that immediately preceded her in the evolution in a line with herself, perpendicular to the direction of the wind. This will rather close the line; but, if it be desired to preserve the same distance between the ships as there was when in line of battle, they must bear away only nine points, observing still the directions for keeping a-breast of each other. In the second order of sailing the ships are ranged on a line perpendicular to the direction of the wind; but, if it be intended to form a line a-breast upon any other line, the number of points which the fleet must bear away may be known thus: add to 8, (being one fourth of the points on the compass,) one half of the number of points between that on which the ships are ranged, and that on which they are intended to be ranged. For instance, suppose a fleet ranged on the W N W line in order of battle is to be formed in line a-breast on the S W line. Between W N W and S W are 6 points, of which the half, 3, added to 8, gives 11 points, which the fleet is to bear away to form on the S W line. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE THIRD ORDER OF SAILING SO AS TO RE-FORM THE LINE, UPON EITHER TACK.
ALL the ships bear away together ten points. [Tactics, pl. X. fig. 56.] One half of the line, from the head to the center ship inclusive, carry an equal degree of sail, in order to preserve their line |
of bearing: but the remainder of the ships carry sail in succession, and only in such degrees as will form and preserve them on that close-hauled line upon which they were not running before this evolution. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING ON THE SAME TACK.
TO perform this evolution, and at the same time keep to windward as much as possible, the van and center tack together, [Tactics, pl. X. fig. 57.] and run close-hauled in bow-and-quarter line. The rear keeps her tack on an easy sail. The center re-tacks, when it is ship to ship a-breast of the rear. The van stands on till the center and rear come up, and then it re-tacks; and all the columns regulate their distances. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING ON THE SAME TACK, THE CENTER SQUADRON FORMING TO LEEWARD, AND THE REAR FORMING THE CENTER COLUMN.
THE van tacks together, [Tactics, pl. X. fig. 8.] and goes away two points free, to gain the distance of the center. The center bears away eight points under an easy sail. When the van is ship for ship with the center, and of course in its wake, the van re-tacks. The rear stands on to occupy the center station; and, when the new lee column is ship to ship a-breast of the new center, its springs its luff. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING ON THE SAME TACK, THE CENTER FORMING THE WEATHER COLUMN, AND THE VAN SQUADRON BECOMING THE CENTER.
THE van brings to, and serves as a mark for this evolution. [Tactics, pl. XI. fig. 59.] The center tacks together, and carries sail close-hauled, until the leader has the center ship of the van division, which is brought-to, at right angles with the wind. He and his division then re-tack together; and they will find themselves rather farther to windward than necessary, but this is in their favour. In the mean time the rear squadron goes under an easy sail, one point from the point, in order to range up with the column which has brought to during this evolution: and, when the two columns in motion are drawn up a breast and on each side of the column, now the center, that column fills, and they regulate their distances. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING ON THE SAME TACK, THE VAN COLUMN PASSING TO LEEWARD.
THE van brings to. [Tactics, pl. XI. fig. 6o.] The center tacks together and carries sail closehauled, until it comes ship to ship a-breast of the rear, (which has from the beginning stood under |
TACTICS. PLATE XI.
|
an easy sail,) and then the center re-tacks together. When the rear is near passing to windward of the van, brought to from the first, the van fills and goes away under easy sail for a small time at right angles from the line; it hauls up, when its leader and the sternmost ship of the center column bear in a line perpendicular to the wind. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING, ON THE SAME TACK, THE VAN FORMING THE LEE COLUMN, AND THE REAR THE WEATHER COLUMN.
THE van bears away together under an easy sail, and goes away at right angles with the line ahead. [Tactics, pl. XI. fig. 61.] The center at the same time goes away two points free, and each ship steers for that ship of the van, respectively, which is to be a-breast of her when in column. The leader of the van must determine the distance, by not hauling up with his division until his ship and the sternmost ship of the center column (which is drawn up with him) are in a line at right angles with the wind. They both then stand on under an easy sail; while the rear, crowding sail, passes to windward of both. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING ON THE SAME TACK; THE REAR FORMING THE WEATHER COLUMN, THE VAN THE CENTER, AND THE CENTER FORMING THE LEE COLUMN.
THE van brings to, or goes under an easy sail. [Tactics, pl. XI. fig. 62.] The center goes off together two points free, to pass to leeward of the van and get a-breast of it. When a-breast of the van, it goes away also two points free with the center. The rear pressing sail, and not altering its course, passes to windward of the other columns, which spring their luffs when they are a-breast of the new weather column. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING ON THE OTHER TACK, WITHOUT CHANGING THE DISPOSITION OF THE SQUADRONS.
THE van tacks in succession. [Tactics, pl. XI. fig. 63.] The leader of the center tacks when the leader of the van is passing him exactly to windward, and his division follows him. The rear manoeuvres in the same way, with respect to the center. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING ON THE OTHER TACK, THE CENTER SQUADRON FORMING THE LEE COLUMN, AND THE REAR THE CENTER.
THE van and center tack at the same time in succession, the van carrying sail, to get up and range with the center. [Tactics, pl. XI. fig. 64.] When the sternmost ship of the center has tacked, that |
column brings to, or carries a very easy sail. The rear, having stood on, tacks in succession at that point of the line; when the leaders of the new van and lee columns bear, from the rear leader, an equal number of points to windward and to leeward. He is then followed by his division; and, when he has got a-breast of the two leading ships of the van and lee columns, the evolution is compleated. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING ON THE OTHER TACK, THE CENTER SQUADRON FORMING TO WINDWARD, AND THE VAN IN THE CENTER.
THE van tacks in succession; [Tactics, pl. XII. fig. 65.] and, when about, keeps just on steerage way. The center carries sail, and tacks, either when the center ship of the division has passed the sternmost of the van which tacked before it, or when the leader of the new weather column has the sternmost ship of the new center column in a line at right angles with the wind. When he is about, his division follows, carrying sail to gain the distance a-breast of the new center. The rear tacks in succession, when the first ship of the division is a-breast of the sternmost ship of the center: it then adapts its sail to the other columns. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING ON THE OTHER TACK, THE VAN SQUADRON FORMING TO LEEWARD, THE CENTER TO WINDWARD, AND THE REAR IN THE CENTER.
THE van makes sail and tacks in succession; [Tactics, pl. XII. fig. 66.] when about, the column brings to or carries a very easy sail. The leader of the center column, which is now to form to windward, tacks as soon as the last of his column passes a-stern of the new lee column, and is followed in succession by his division. The leader of the rear, which is to form the center column, tacks, either when a-breast of the leader of the windward column, or when his center ship passes astern of the lee column, or when he has the center ship of the lee column in a line at right angles with the wind. When the rear has tacked, the lee column fills; and all the columns make proper sail for regulating the order. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING ON THE OTHER TACK, THE VAN SQUADRON FORMING TO LEEWARD, AND THE REAR TO WINDWARD.
THE van tacks in succession, carrying sail; [Tactics, pl. XII. fig. 67.] and, when the column is about, it must bring to or shorten sail, to allow the other columns time to form. The center and rear then carry sail, and tack in succession. The center tacks, when its leader has the center of the lee column in a line at right angles with the wind, or when its center passes a-stern of the lee column. When the center is about, it regulates itself by the lee column, either by bringing to or |
TACTICS. PLATE XII.
|
making equal sail; and thus both wait for the rear to pass to windward. The rear tacks, when its leader has the first ship of the lee column in a line at right angles with the wind, or when its center ship passes a-stern of the last ship of the center column. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING ON THE OTHER TACK; THE REAR SQUADRON FORMING TO WINDWARD, THE VAN SQUADRON AS CENTER COLUMN, AND THE CENTER SQUADRON TO LEEWARD.
THE van and center tack in succession; [Tactics, pl. XII. fig. 68.] and bring to or go under easy sail. The rear, which is to be to windward, carries sail; and tacks in succession when its leader has the headmost ship of the lee column in a line at right angles with the wind, or when its center ship passes a-stern of the center column. The columns then make proper sail to regulate their distances. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE ORDER OF RETREAT.
THE leader bears away four points, and is followed in succession by one half of the line to the center included. When the center has bore away, the order of retreat is formed. TO CHANGE FROM THE ORDER OF RETREAT TO THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING.
THE most simple method is to pass to the line a-head, and thence to form the columns. But, if the fleet be somewhat dispersed, it may be performed thus. [Tactic, pl. XII. fig. 69.] It must bring-to, on the line perpendicular to the direction of the wind, as in the second order of sailing; and, to effect this, the two extreme ships of the wings having brought to on that line, as soon as the other ships gain their respective stations on that line, they bring to in the same tack. After which, the ships all filling at the same time, the leaders of the columns haul their wind upon the proper tack, while the other ships of the columns run large two points till they respectively gain the points at which their leaders spring their luffs, when they haul in succession. The lee column having less distance to run, carries very easy sail; the center and weather columns increase theirs, in proportion to their distances. According to the tack which the fleet is to take, in the order of sailing, the van squadron will be either to windward or to leeward. TO CHANGE FROM THE ORDER OF RETREAT TO THE LINE OF BATTLE.
THE leader of the wing which is to form the head of the line hauls the wind, [Tactics, pl. XII. fig. 70.] and that wing follows in succession, steering in each other's wakes. The other wing goes |
four points from the wind together, on the same tack, and thus runs parallel to the wing which first began the evolution. They haul up together when they arrive in the wake of the line. If the fleet which retreats is attacked only on one wing, the wing attacked is to heave to the wind six points, on the same side as the enemy; and the van ship is at the same time to haul close by the wind on the same tack; while the ships of the other wing shall come all together to the wind on their line, in order to veer in succession at the angular point, in the wake of the wing attacked. TO CHANGE AND REFORM UPON SHIFTS OF WIND.
TO CHANGE FROM THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING TO THE LINE OF BATTLE, WHEN THE WIND SHIFTS FORWARD.
If the wind comes forward but inconsiderably, the change may be made in the third mode recommended under the head of "i>To change from the fifth order to the line of battle on the same tack, the weather column forming the van, and the lee column the rear." But, if the wind should change two or three points, [Tactics, pl. XIII. fig. 71.] the leader of the column to windward goes about and keeps under an easy sail, and the rest of his column carrying sail, but keeping on the same tack, go away together in bow-and-quarter line, to gain their leader's wake, where they tack in succession. The center-leader will tack somewhat to windward of the wake of the weather column, in order to tack clear of it. The leader of the lee column acts in the same manner with regard to the center column; and, as the two last columns will naturally be to windward of the van, they edge away and form a-stern of it. If it be intended to continue the first tack, the leader of the weather column must re-tack soon after his first tack, and be followed by the line. If the wind comes forward three points or more, as the fleet would run too far to leeward by manoeuvering as in the preceding evolution, [Tactics, pl. XIII. fig. 72.] the whole may go about together; and the leader of the weather column (the ship which is to lead the line) goes away two points free, carrying sail to gain ahead of his division, while the ships of his division keep their wind under an easy sail, to get successively into the wake of their leader; when they make sail and follow him. The van leader continues his course large, until he brings the leewardmost ship of the fleet to bear from him, in the direction of the close-hauled line on the tack upon which they are moving, when he hauls up and continues under an easy sail, (or, if necessary, re-tacks,) followed in succession by the fleet. The leaders of the center and lee columns go away free two points from the beginning of the evolution, as the leader of the van did; and they form in his wake when they spring their luffs, followed by their respective divisions, to complete the line of battle. |
TACTICS. PLATE XIII.
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TO CHANGE FROM THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING TO THE LINE OF BATTLE, WHEN THE WIND COMES AFT.
Should the wind come aft eight points exactly, the columns, when hauled up after their leaders, will find themselves in line: [Tactics, pl. XIII. fig. 73.] but, as this would close the line too much, the weather column must press sail after their leader; the center should move on under less sail; and the lee column merely keep steerage way; to give room for the divisions to form astern of each other at the proper distances. If the wind come aft less than eight points, the leader of the weather column hauls his wind, and is followed in succession by his column. [Tactics, pl. XIIs. fig. 74.] At the same time the leaders of the other two columns haul their wind and press sail; standing on, till by tacking they can fetch the point, where the weather leader hauled his wind, when they respectively re-tack in succession, and form a-stern of each other. But, if the line is to be formed a-head of the lee column, (which is sometimes particularly convenient for closing the order when too open, provided no inconvenience or danger is expected from the falling so far to leeward,) the center and lee columns bring to. [Tactics, pl. XIII. fig. 75.] Then the weather leader bears away two, four, six, or even eight points, and runs down to leeward, till he brings the van ship of the lee column to bear from him in the direction of the closehauled line, when he springs his luff: the ships of his division follow in succession. When the rear of the weather column has passed in the direction of the close-hauled line a-head of the van ship of the center, the center column fills, bears away, and, manoeuvering as the van column did, forms a-stem of it. The lee column fills when the last ship of the center has passed. If the wind come aft more than eight points, the line may be formed, preserving the regular order of the columns, thus: [Tactics, pl. XIII. fig.76.] The center and lee columns bring to. The leader of the weather column hauls his wind, and his division bear down, and form successively in his and each other's wake. The leader of the center fills, when the last ship of the weather column bears from him, on the point upon which they will sail when close-hauled: he then, making proper sail, may go down at right angles with that bearing, and haul up when he gets into the wake of the van division; his ships follow him. The lee column manoeuvres with regard to the center, in the same manner as the center did with regard to the van. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE ORDER OF RETREAT, THE WIND COMING FORWARD.
THIS may be done (whether the wind come forward or aft) by first re-forming the line of battle, and then changing from that to the order of retreat. This is the most certain but not the shortest method; it has however this advantage, that it does not so quickly communicate the intention to the enemy. But, as this double manoeuvre would require some considerable time, and as circumstances will not always permit it, this evolution may be executed in the following manner. The fleet in line having fallen off, [Tactics, pl. XIV. fig. 77.] the leader of the van goes four points free, while the rest of the ships stand on together close-hauled, in order to gain the wake of the |
leader and each other's respectively. When the center ship has arrived at the angular point, that is, in the wake of his second a-head, that wing is formed. The other wing will be easily formed, if (the first wing continuing to sail four points free) the ships of the other wing bear away four points free together, they running on parallel courses with the first wing. The ships of the wing now forming must adapt their sail to place themselves on the proper line of bearing; which will be effected, when each first, second, third, &c. ship of one wing bears, from the corresponding ship in the other wing, in a line perpendicular to the direction of the wind. If the admiral should wish to shape his course immediately when the angular ship is arrived at her proper station, [Tactics, pl. XIV. fig. 78.] the rear wing will not have time to form with the regularity recommended in the preceding manner; but it must be effected by making or shortening sail, as may best suit each ship in running for her proper station. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE ORDER OF RETREAT, THE WIND COMING AFT.
If the wind draws aft from one to four points, [Tactics, pl. XIV. fig. 79.] the leader of the van goes under very little sail four points free: the ships which are to compose his wing follow, under similar sail, and form in his and each other's wakes. The rest of the line, from the center ship to the sternmost, (which have also stood on the same course,) as soon as the center ship is in her proper station, go large together as many points as the change of wind may require; and they observe to carry sail, in proportion to their distance from the angular ship, the sternmost ship carrying most of all. The number of points which they are to go large may be always thus known: subtract, from 8 points, half the number of points which the wind has shifted; so, if the wind has come aft 4 points, deduct 2 from 8, and the remainder, 6, is the number of points they are to go large. If the wind should come aft more than four points, this evolution may be expeditiously performed, by all the ships of the line bearing away before the wind, and ranging themselves, in the second order of sailing, on the line perpendicular to the direction of the wind; from that the order of retreat may be afterwards formed. TO RE-FORM THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING, THE WIND COMING FORWARD.
If the wind does not alter more than six points, and it is intended to keep on the same tack, each column, considered as a single unconnected line, may manoeuvre in the same way as in re-forming the line of battle; that is, [Tactics, pl. XIV. fig. 80.] the columns having brought to, the leader of each will bear away a certain number of points, according as the wind has changed; and this number may be known by deducting from eight half the number of points the wind has shifted: thus, if the wind has come forward two points, the leader runs seven points free, and continues so to do till he brings the sternmost ship of his column to bear from him on the close-hauled line. The other ships observe to fill and run large one after the other, as their immediate seconds a-head come to bear from them respectively on the close-hauled line. The ships of each column haul their wind when they are all ranged upon the close-hauled line a-head of the sternmost ship. |
TACTICS. PLATE XIV.
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If the wind comes forward from six to twelve points, the order is re-formed by changing the tack, and by proceeding as if the wind had come a-head while on that tack. The weather column then becomes the lee column, and the lee column is consequently to windward. Should the wind shift more than twelve points, the tack being changed, the wind may then be said to come aft.
TO RE-FORM THE FIFTH ORDER OF SAILING, THE WIND COMING AFT.
IF the wind comes aft but a little, [Tactics, pl. XIV. fig. 81.] and the admiral does not choose the fleet to run close-hauled chequerwise, but prefers the re-forming of the order, it is thus performed: the weather column shortens sail, the center column may preserve its headway, but the lee column must carry a press of sail: the leader of the weather column hauls his wind; and the leaders of the center and lee columns, preserving their distances, imperceptibly gather to the wind, by keeping a-breast of the leader of the weather column. The ships of each column, having equal headway with their respective leaders, will then get successively into their respective wakes. When the order is thus recovered, the distances must be corrected. if the wind comes aft considerably, and it is not intended to change the tack, the weather column brings to; [Tactics, pl. XIV. fig. 82.] the lee column makes sail, and steers at right angles with the new close-hauled line. When the leader of the lee column has the leader of the weather column four points to windward of the close-hauled line, he hauls close, and is followed in succession by the ships of his column. The center column manoeuvres as the lee column did; taking care, however, to go under very easy sail, so as not to reach the point where it is to haul close, before the lee leader has done so: the center must then continue under very easy sail, or may bring to, if necessary, to wait till the lee column is a-breast of it. When the leader of the center and lee columns are got a-breast of the weather column, brought to, that column fills; its leader keeps his wind; and his other ships, running large, bear down in each other's waters, and form. By this evolution, which is short and devoid of confusion, the fleet will fall very little to leeward; and the ships may with great ease regain their proper stations. if the wind shifts exactly four points aft, [Tactics, pl. XIV. fig. 83.] the leader of the lee column hauls his wind, and the ships follow him. The center and weather columns veer round, rear to van, and continue to steer so, till their van (now the rear) is a-breast of the van of the lee column; the center then veers round to its former tack, and hauls its wind in succession: the weather column does the same, when in the same bearing with the lee leader, and the order is reformed. This evolution may be performed in a more immediate way, by the center and weather columns bringing to, instead of veering round; but as, in this latter mode, the columns will be too close, the intervals must be opened by steerage, the lee columns bearing away. Unless the wind shifts exactly four points aft, the first mode will not be practicable; but the latter will. if the wind shifts exactly eight points aft, [Tactics, pl. XIV. fig. 84.] the weather column brings to; the other columns keep on their course (which is now quartering); and, when the leader of the center column finds he is two points to leeward of the weather leader, he and his column bring also to the wind, and lie to. The lee column acts in the same manner; but, when the lee leader has brought the leaders of the weather and center columns in a line with him, (or |
two points to windward of him,) he hauls his wind, and stands on, followed by his column: the other columns fill, stand on, and form, as the lee columns draw up with them. TO RE-FORM THE LINE OF BATTLE, THE WIND COMING FORWARD.
THE most disadvantageous change of wind that can happen to a fleet in line of battle is, when it comes forward; because the order is then oftentimes but with difficulty re-formed, particularly if the enemy be in sight. If the wind comes forward from one to six points, [Tactics, pl. XV. Fig. 85.] and it is intended to keep the fleet on the same tack, each ship having fallen off, the whole line brings to, except the headmost ship, which immediately bears away a certain number of points. This number of points is known, by deducting from 8 (being one fourth of the compass) one half of the points which the wind has changed: thus, if the wind has come forward 4 points, deduct 2 from 8, and 6 points will remain, as the number which the ships are to run large. The headmost ship then, having fallen off, and bore away, the ship which follows her fills and bears away, as soon as she brings her leader to bear on the close-hauled line; all the ships of the line proceed successively in the same manner: and, at length, they altogether haul their wind in the wake of their leader, when they get upon the close-hauled line with the sternmost ship, which then fills and stands on close-hauled, not being under the necessity of bearing away. If the fleet do not bring to, it may be executed thus: [Tactics, pl. XV. fig. 86.] The ships fall off: the headmost ship, having bore away the certain number of points before mentioned, (or else steering on a course perpendicular to the new close-hauled line, upon which the order is to be reformed,) will haul her wind when the sternmost ship shall bear from her on the close-hauled line. In the mean time every ship, keeping her wind, will successively place herself in the wake of her second a-head, and follow her manoeuvres in bearing away and springing her luff. The sternmost ship will, at length, find herself in line of battle, without bearing away at all. This is an expeditious and convenient method of re-forming the line, especially when the line is not formed in close order. A third method. – The van ship may get on the other tack, [Tactics, pl. XV. fig. 87.] while the rest of the ships stand on together, and tack in succession in the wake of their respective seconds ahead; and the headmost ship may commence the re-tacking in succession, before the whole line has completely tacked. The headmost ships must, however, observe to lessen sail, while the sternmost must proportion theirs to the distance they have to run. This evolution is not calculated for execution in the presence of an enemy, if near; because it would expose the line to be cut and traversed. A fourth method. – [Tactics, pl. XV. fig. 88.] The whole line tack together, and go in bow-and-quarter line; the rear ships observing to press sail, and the headmost ships lessening theirs, till the fleet is on the close-hauled line of bearing for the other tack; when they re-tack together. The order will probably be too open, and therefore attention must be paid to the distances, after the fleet have re-tacked. A fifth method. – All the fleet are to veer round at the same time, having their heads towards the exact opposite point of the compass from their former course. Then the rear ship, which is now become the van, is to veer and haul close by the wind on the same tack as she did before, the rest of the ships performing the same manoeuvre in succession. This evolution soon re-forms the line, but it |
TACTICS. PLATE XV.
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inverts the van and rear: it may however be performed in urgent circumstances, such as to get abreast of an enemy who wishes to avoid an engagement, to double a cape in plying to windward, or to avoid some danger. If the wind comes exactly four points a-head, the whole fleet is to veer round till the heads of all the ships come upon the other tack to the point exactly opposite to their former course; and the rear ship (now become the van) is to run four points large upon that tack, the rest of the fleet follow in succession; and, when the last ship (the former van) is got in the wake of the head-most in the line, all the fleet is to veer together, and the order will be re-formed on the former tack. To re-form the line of battle on the other tack in a shift of wind from one to six points forward, all the ships of the fleet are to veer round, till their heads come to the opposite point of the compass from their former course; and then the rear ship (now the van) is to haul close by the wind on that tack: the other ships haul in succession. This would place the fleet more to windward than the preceding; and from this they might pass, by veering in succession, to the line of battle on the former tack. If the wind comes a-head more than six points and less than twelve, the fleet, changing the tack, will manoeuvre in the same way as if it had come a-head not more than six points. In this situation, if two fleets are in sight, the advantage of the weather gage will be gained by the fleet that was before to leeward. But, To re-form the order of battle upon the same tack, when the wind shifts eight points forward, the ships are to veer round all together, till their heads are on the point of the compass opposite to their former course. [Tactics, pl. XV. fig. 89] Then the rear ship, having become the van, is to haul close by the wind on the same board: all the other ships are to haul in succession, and range in the wake of the leading ship. If the wind changes a-head twelve points exactly, the fleet need only change their tack, and the order is not disturbed: but, if it were necessary to preserve the tack, the fleet must veer round together, and haul their wind in succession on the first tack. Should the wind change more than twelve points, it cannot then be said to come forward. TO RE-FORM THE LINE OF BATTLE, THE WIND COMING AFT.
If the wind has shifted but a little, the leader hauls his wind, while the seconds go under an easy sail, steering a little large for the main mast of the preceding ship. If it be intended to change the tack, the whole fleet tack together; and then the sternmost, becoming the leader, hauls up, and the rest bear down, steering for each other's main masts, and forming respectively a-stern. If the wind comes aft four points, the whole tack together; and the line is re-formed on the other tack immediately. By this, however, the van becomes the rear; an expedient necessary on many occasions to save time and keep to windward. Indeed if it change only two or three points, the fleet may, by tacking together, and springing their luffs in succession after the van ship, (which was before the rear,) be readily re-formed on the other tack. |
If the wind comes aft many points, the leader of the van hauls his wind; the rest stand on large (as they must necessarily find themselves upon the changing of the wind); and, as they arrive in the wake of their leaders, they severally haul up. This evolution, which is very simple, is advantageous to a fleet having the lee gage, and wishing to engage with or come nearer to the enemy; it may even sometimes gain the wind, by all the ships crowding sail as they spring their luffs. If the wind changes sixteen points, all the ships brace about for the other tack immediately; by which means the fleet will be sailing four points large: then the ships tacking or veering instantly altogether, the order of battle will be re-formed on the same tack as they were before the shift of wind. This evolution is advantageous, both because it is quickly executed, and because it keeps the fleet as much to windward as possible. But, if keeping to windward be not an object, the whole fleet shift the tack, brace about, and fill: the leading ship hauls close, makes sail, and the rest follow in succession. TO RE-FORM THE ORDER OF RETREAT, THE WIND CHANGING.
If the wind changes but little, the order is easily recovered, if the ships of both wings keep reciprocally a-breast of each other on a line, perpendicular to the direction of the wind, and in line of bearing with the angular ship. If the wind changes much, but without blowing within the angle formed by this order, [Tactics, pl. XV. fig. 90.] the leader of the lee wing hauls his wind, (doubling his wing outwards,) and is followed in succession by the ships of that wing. The ships of the weather wing stand altogether for the angular ship; and thus the ships of the weather wing, as they successively arrive at the angular point, will bear away after the lee wing; and haul in succession at the point where the lee wing began the evolution. When the leader observes that the center ship is right a-stern, he bears away four points, and is followed in succession by his wing: and, when that center ship is arrived at the angular point of the present lines of bearing, the evolution is completed. This evolution, as well as the next, is performed merely by the whole following the leading ship; and the whole stopping on the arrival of the center ship at the angular point. If the wind changes so considerably as to blow within the angle formed by this order, [Tactics, pl. XV. fig. 91.] the lee leader hauls his wind on the tack which he can take soonest; and the fleet, standing on their respective lines of bearing, move in the wake of the lee leader. When the leader perceives that the center ship has gained the line right a-stern of him, he bears away four points, and is followed by his wing when the center ship is arrived at the angular point of the present lines of bearing, the evolution is completed; and the proper course may be directory shaped. If the wind changes exactly sixteen points, although the necessity of re-forming the order of retreat can scarcely occur, it may be done in either of the two following ways. First: the fleet veer round, head and stern; the admiral brings to at the angular point, while the two wings run right before the wind, to bring to successively on their respective lines of bearing, and consequently to leeward of the admiral: the ships near the extremities of the wings must carry more sail, according to the distance they have to run. The second method of performing it is this: [Tactics, |
pl. XV. fig. 92.] The fleet all fall off (suppose to port); the ships of the wing on the larboard side of the admiral haul close to the wind with all sails set, and bear away four points in succession in the wake of their leader; while the ships of the starboard wing run four points large on their own line, till they haul their wind in succession in the wake of the first wing, which is now moving off: so that, when the last ship of the starboard wing of the former order shall have hauled close, (the center ship being consequently on the angular point of the present lines of bearing,) the evolution is compleated; but the starboard wing is now become the larboard. IN WHAT THE FORCE OF A FLEET CONSISTS.
THE principal strength of a fleet consists in good order and discipline. Thence result an exact observance of signals and a prompt execution of manoeuvres. A line of battle is strong in proportion to its close order, provided a proper regard is paid to the leaving of sufficient room for working the ships. If the ships of a line are not so close as those of the enemy, many of them must have to sustain the fire of two ships; and of course a dangerous inferiority will thereby arise. Many advantages result from large ships and heavy metal. First, in case of boarding, large ships possess a manifest superiority from their height, which facilitates to them the execution of this manoeuvre, while it impedes the execution of it by a smaller ship upon a larger. Secondly, in heavy seas and bad weather, the large ships can more commodiously and with greater safety use their lower tier of guns than small ships can: and, if the roughness of the weather should compel both to keep their lower tier close, still the three-decked ship will have the advantage of two tiers to one, as it before had three to two. The same advantage they likewise have, in case of the upper deck being incumbered by shattered rigging, &c. in the use of their middle deck guns. Large ships too have greater solidity, resisting better the attack, and living better in tempestuous weather. In general, large ships sail better than small, notwithstanding the prejudice of opinion in favour of the latter; but such preference should be understood only in light airs of wind, and in the quickness of their movements; for, in stiff gales, when the seas begin to rise, large ships will obviously have the advantage. Fireships succeed less against large than small ships; because the heavier metal of the first is more likely to sink them than those of the latter; and because the larger boats of the great ships are more likely to succeed in towing them safely off. A fleet that is composed of a greater number of large ships, though fewer in number, need not be so closely arranged as that of the enemy: for, though less numerous, it may yet be stronger. A fleet whose line is not so close works, in some circumstances, more easily than the closer fleet; and, if less numerous, its movements are quicker, the signals better observed, the order more exactly kept, and the whole less liable to separation. As the smaller fleet is more easily worked, it follows, of course, that |
a shift of wind cannot disorder or embarrass it so much as a more numerous fleet: and it also follows, that it can work with greater ease and expedition to or from the enemy, may keep at a greater distance from or approach higher to a shore, and with less hazard. From these facts, therefore, we may conclude, that a fleet, composed of a greater number of capital ships, will be found to be of greater force than a more numerous fleet of smaller ships. Effective power does not consist wholly in numbers; although a certain proportion of second and third rate ships are highly necessary for a line of battle.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FLEETS TO WINDWARD AND TO LEEWARD.
AS fleets never engage but in opposite lines close to the wind, one of the lines must necessarily be to windward of the other. Each of these situations possesses advantages and disadvantages; what are peculiar to either we shall here discuss. The advantages of the fleet to windward. The fleet which has the weather gage of the other, has the advantage of determining the time and distance of the action; they may board if they think proper, and follow the enemy close whenever he gives way; they may easily traverse the enemy's line, send fireships to their disabled vessels, and detachments to cut off the van or rear of the fleet to leeward; finally, they are never annoyed by the fire or smoak, as the wind carries it to the enemy. The disadvantages of the fleet to windward are an inability to quit the fight, when once engaged, without being obliged to pass through the enemy's line, which is extremely dangerous; because, being already very much injured since they are obliged to fly, they must expect to be still more so; and, as they have no longer in their power to form the order of retreat, this manoeuvre is absolutely a desperate one. If the fleet to windward tack all together in order to get off, the line to leeward may do the same, after having raked the weather ships in stays, and follow them on the other tack, with the advantage of having gained the wind of the center and rear divisions of the flying line. If it blows fresh, it is seldom that weather ships have their lower deck guns sufficiently elevated; whence it results that the ship being a little inclined on her side, the guns often run out again at their ports, after being fired, which very much retards the service of the artillery, since the guns are obliged to be bowsed in again every time for loading: and oftentimes they can make no use at all of their lower tier. Another disadvantage is, that such of the ships as are so disabled as to be obliged to quit the line, cannot easily do it, because in veering, for want of being able to tack, they fall between the two lines, where they are raked a-head, and by that means compleatly put in disorder. But, should they be fortunate enough to be able to finish their evolution, it is still very difficult for them, disabled as they are, to get to windward of their line; and very often they fall foul of the next ships a-stern of them, which have it scarcely in their power to prevent that accident, on account of the fire and smoak, especially if the line is much contracted: and, should these perceive it, and try to avoid being run foul of by sailing back on their next ship a-stern, and so on thus successively; it might happen, that from one to the other a great part of the fleet being obliged to manoeuvre, their fire would lessen, and very often cease, by their covering each other; when the disorder increases, and all is lost, if the enemy take advantage of this critical moment. |
But these inconveniences may be partly prevented, by having the disabled ships quickly towed out of the line by the boats of the fleet, which, for that very purpose, should always be hoisted out from each ship before the engagement begins. Otherwise, if the ships in the weather line, not being too close, have the necessary space to observe what passes a-head of them, and to manoeuvre, they ought to range themselves to leeward of the disabled vessel, in order to cover her, and approach nearer to the enemy; all the other ships bearing up also together to preserve the line. The advantages of the fleet to leeward. The fleet on the lee gage have the advantage of serving with facility and effect their lower deck guns, in all weathers proper for fleets to come to action: they can quit the engagement at pleasure: their disabled ships are at liberty to leave their stations without difficulty, if necessity requires it; thus they find themselves under cover by the rest, where they may soon be assisted by the frigates. In this position, they can form the order of retreat with more promptitude, or continue the action as long as convenient. In short, the lee line of battle can also, if superior in number, double the enemy, by making some of the ships in the van or rear to tack, and put one of the extremities of the enemy's line between two fires; and, if they are formed in time, they may cannonade the enemy while bearing down to the attack. The disadvantages of the fleet to leeward. Its disadvantages are, being very much annoyed by the smoak, and a continued shower of fire from the wads falling on board, repelled by the wind; which, if not attended to, may be productive of very great accidents. The ships of the line to leeward cannot attempt to board those of the other, whatever may be their inclination for it: they can hardly do more than accept the battle, without being able to determine either time or distance. It is but with a great deal of difficulty they can avoid being boarded, or prevent their line being broken, if the weather ships are bent upon doing it; and their fire-ships very seldom are of use. A general rule for the adoption of either the weather or lee gage cannot be laid down. Accident often ends our choice; but the strength of his fleet, the object of his enterprize, the state of the weather, and various other circumstances, will regulate the conduct of a commander in chief in his preference of one to the other.
TO DISPUTE THE WEATHER GAGE WITH THE ENEMY.
BEING in line of battle and to leeward of an enemy of whom you wish to get the weather gage, your fleet is to be kept on the opposite tack to that of the enemy; because, in that position, they will be obliged to edge very much away, should they be inclined to come to action, and, by that means, they may lose the advantage of the wind. If your enemy persists in keeping to windward, without coming to action, they will be obliged to keep upon the same tack with you, to prevent your getting into their wake, or doubling them by passing a-head and to windward, unless the whole of the weather fleet be absolutely excellent sailers, which is very rare, though not impossible. However, as fleets in general sail nearly upon an equality, it will be impossible for the lee fleet to force the other to action, without a shift of wind; which is a very common event, which every succeeding instant may bring about. The lee fleet may turn to windward, and pursue the enemy according to the principles of chasing, by tacking all at the same time, as soon as the center ship brings the middle vessel of the weather line |
exactly on her beam, in order to join them by the shortest means possible, without, however, deviating from the order of battle, or sailing on one line. If the weather fleet be in order of battle, and the wind draw a-head, the lee fleet, if they be a-head and in order of battle, ought to box off on the same tack as before, in order to tack in succession in the wake one of another, to restore the order of battle, drawing at the same time a great deal to windward: this manoeuvre may even be the means of weathering the enemy, if the wind should shift much: for, they have no other method to regain the order of battle, without losing much ground; though they will always lose a great deal with respect to the position of the enemy to leeward. If the lee fleet be a-stern, and the wind shifts aft, while they are on the contrary tack with the enemy in order of sailing on one line, the lee fleet ought to tack or veer all together, and at the same instant; because this shift of wind will be a-head for all the ships, in respect to their tacks then on board, and a-stern in respect to the order of battle. When the van ship is full on the other tack, as well as all the rest in their former order of battle, she shall haul by the wind, while the rest of the fleet run large on their first line of battle as many points as the wind has shifted aft, to get into her wake successively, and restore the order of battle while approaching the enemy, by which they may gain the wind of him, or else double him if the shift has been great: for, the only means they have of restoring the line of battle is by the van ship hauling by the wind, and the rest coming into her wake in succession. If the shift of wind was four points, the fleet to leeward would be obliged still to perform the same manoeuvre, that they might go about, after a certain time, successively to windward of the enemy, who could only in the mean time have tacked all together, to bring their fleet suddenly in a line of battle on the other board. IF, when the wind shifts aft, the lee fleet is a-stern in order of battle, and the enemy be on the other tack in the order of sailing, the leading ship must haul close to the wind immediately, while the other vessels will in succession bear away as many points as the wind has shifted, in order to perform the same manoeuvre and restore the line of battle. By observing this mode of maneuvering, you will approach the enemy, and gain as much to windward of him as possible, or get even the weather gage of him entirely, if the wind has shifted considerably. The rear ship of the fleet to leeward may immediately keep close to this new wind on the same board, while all the rest of the fleet, after having tacked together and at the same time, will come and place themselves close by the wind in her wake, where they are again to tack successively, in order to follow their rear ship, which is now become the leader, and which may break the enemy's line, or at least gain the wind of him, But, to be able to go through this evolution, you must have nothing to fear from the enemy; for, the fleet will be obliged to go about twice before the order of battle can be restored. The weather fleet ought to keep their wind as close as possible, holding the enemy always exactly to leeward of them, by keeping on the same tack as he; and if the wind shifts a little, and becomes favourable to the enemy which is to leeward, the weather ships are then to keep exactly their wind, without caring for the preservation of the line, unless the two fleets be absolutely very near one another. |
TO AVOID COMING TO ACTION WHEN TO WINDWARD.
THE weather fleet (unless the wind changes) having it always in their power to preserve their advantage, can but with difficulty be forced to action; because they may always hold the board on which they most recede from the enemy; while the fleet to leeward must run in the order of sailing on one line, or in order of battle on the other tack, until their admiral have the center ship, or admiral, of the weather line, right a-breast of him, and perpendicular to his course, in order to tack all together and follow the weather fleet by the principles of chasing. For, if the lee fleet stand on one tack till they can weather the retreating fleet, they will soon be out of sight, since fleets in general sail nearly with equal celerity. The weather fleet may fly off in order of battle on the starboard or larboard tack, while the lee fleet pursues them in the same manner, that is to say, in order of battle likewise and on either tack. But when they come to go about, they are to hold the order of sailing. If the lee fleet is so much superior to the weather fleet, as to be able to form a detachment of fine sailing ship, in a sufficient number to attempt any thing, let it be done; then this squadron is to chase the flying enemy to windward, in the same manner as one single ship chases another over which she has the advantage in sailing; while the remaining part of the superior fleet will use every possible effort to get to windward, as we said before. By this manoeuvre, the detachment of the swift-going vessels having joined the enemy, will harrass and disturb their movements, besides keeping them in sight of the rest of the fleet, which will then have the superiority in sailing; for, when you are engaged in an action, or when some of your ships are disabled, it is impossible to manoeuvre properly unless such ships be abandoned; and then it becomes impossible to get out of sight of a superior fleet which takes that resolution. If the constancy of the winds could be depended upon, the weather fleet might, with impunity, preserve their advantage in presence of the enemy, were he not sufficiently strong to detach a squadron of superior sailers. But, as nothing is more frequent and common than the variation of the wind, it is always best to keep as far as possible out of sight of a powerful adversary, when you do not find yourself absolutely in a situation to fight: and, on the contrary, the fleet inclined to come to action ought to keep in sight and as near as possible, keeping always on the same board as the enemy, in order to catch the opportunity of the first shift of wind to force him to battle. TO AVOID COMING TO ACTION WHEN TO LEEWARD.
THE lee fleet, which is wishing as much as possible to avoid an engagement, ought to form the order of retreat, to fly from the enemy if they are in view of him, and run on the same tack as their chaser. But, if he is yet out of sight, and they have intelligence of his approach by their frigates, which are looking out, they may run large from the hostile fleet, without confining themselves to keep the wind exactly aft, unless they be in the order of retreat. There are circumstances when the lee fleet may run with the wind aft, without assuming the order of retreat; as, for example, when they wish to gain time, or come to action upon the enemy persisting obstinately in his pursuit of them. These extraordinary cases excepted, a fleet never |
ought to fly before the enemy, without being in the order of retreat, as the rear is then in the best situation to extricate themselves in case of accident. TO FORCE THE ENEMY TO ACTION WHEN YOU ARE TO LEEWARD.
IT has already been made evidently appear that, when you are in presence of the enemy, an engagement is almost unavoidable. The lee fleet, which is wishing to come at any rate to action, have therefore, in that case, need of nothing but patience; for, in keeping always on the same tack with the weather fleet, and taking care to have them so exactly a-breast as to prevent the least danger of losing sight of them, you are ready to take advantage of the first favourable shift of wind to make the attack. Night is certainly the time when an alteration of course may best be attempted. But, the lee fleet is to have frigates on the look out, which, by signals, will continually give notice of the manoeuvre and course of the retreating fleet to windward, which, by these means, is always exposed to be pursued without being able to get off unseen, and must, sooner or later, be compelled to come to action, unless they can get into some port, or a gale of wind should come to rescue them by dispersing both fleets, and thus furnish the means of retreating in a storm. TO BEAR DOWN ON THE ENEMY AND FORCE HIM TO ACTION.
IF the lee fleet keep close to the wind in order of battle, with the design of bringing the weather line to action, the fleet to windward are to stand on in the same manner till they are a-breast of the enemy; then, they are all together, and at the same time, to bear away, and steer exactly so as to bring their respective opponents, in the adverse line, on the same point of the compass with them, observing the principles of chasing, which are to be observed by every chaser to windward. Thus the fleets will soon be near enough to begin the action; and the bow of each ship being presented to her opponent, in the order of sailing, will be easily changed for the line of battle, by all the ships hauling close to the wind together, in the moment which precedes the beginning of the action. The fleet to leeward, inclined to engage, might bring to, to prevent losing time; as, by this manoeuvre, less time will be requisite for the weather fleet to join them: then they will fill as soon as the action begins, because it is more favourable to a lee line to be advancing a-head; since, if a ship be disabled in the weather line (which is obliged to follow with the top-sails full), she will infallibly drop, and run foul of the next vessel a-stern of her, covered with fire and smoak, which may be productive of great disorder. As the lee fleet fill and stand on close by the wind, it is necessary that the weather line should be abreast and parallel to the other, before they bear away to come within the requisite distance for |
action; in order that the van ship of the weather fleet should always keep to windward of the leading ship of the lee line, and be guarded against such a shift of wind as might come a-head; which would not be the case if they were a-stern of the van ship in the lee fleet, which, as well as the rest of the line, would be able then to double them to windward, by tacking in succession. Another reason for the weather line being right a-breast of the enemy to leeward, and for every ship steering on the same point in approaching her opponent in the leeward line of battle, is, that the fleets may be placed exactly parallel to each other; for, as the weather line must not be a-stern, because of the risk of the winds coming more forward, neither must they be a-head of the line to leeward, lest the wind should come more aft; for then, the lee fleet keeping close by the wind in the wake of their leading ship, might, by this shift, be as far to windward as the opposing fleet, or even get the weather gage of them. But, if the weather fleet keep exactly a-breast of the other, they will always be in a situation to preserve their advantage, without exposing themselves. It is, notwithstanding, certain that those ships keeping more away than the line to leeward, will find themselves, when come within gun-shot, in a very disagreeable situation, with respect to the enemy's ships, which will have it then in their power to rake them as they bear down. This may occasion much disorder among the ships of the weather line, which for that moment have it not in their power to fire their whole broadside at the enemy, who has the advantage of beginning the action. If the lee fleet bear away four points, to move their order of battle on the other tack and avoid the action, filing off in succession in the wake of the van ship; the weather line, by bearing away all together eight points, cannot fail (both fleets being supposed to sail equally) to pass through the middle of their line, and force them to fight with disadvantage, if their extent be double the distance between the two fleets; for, if they be less numerous, they will not be so soon engaged, because it will be more difficult to cut off any part of them than if the line had four leagues extent, and the distance between the fleets only two. A fleet, whose extent should not exceed two miles, would (supposing an equality of sailing) be able to file off in one half of the time the other would take to join them; but the weather fleet would still have approached them two miles. If the lee fleet bear away four points all together, being of equal extent with the line to windward, and their distance from each other equal to half the length of one of the files, should the weather fleet bear away at the same time eight points, they will approach very near, it is true, the stern-most of the retreating fleet; but they will not have it in their power to cut any of that fleet off, even with an equality of sailing: so that the only advantage gained by this manoeuvre will be an ability of attacking the rear, and bringing it to action. If the van ship and the rest of the weather fleet had a sufficient velocity to keep the center ship of the lee line on the same point of bearing; in that case, the leading ship may break through the enemy's line about the middle ship of the center division; for, supposing the fleets in order of battle, on the starboard tack, steering East with the wind at S S E, being at two leagues distance from each other, both the files being four leagues in extent; the lee line bearing away altogether four points large, will run N E, while that to windward, bearing away all together eight points, will steer North, the van ship of which will keep the center division of the lee line on the point of bearing N W: as she is supposed to be able to continue in this position, it follows, the van of the weather file must close the center of the flying line to leeward, after having run four leagues. The time and distance necessary to cut off a retreating fleet may always be known, according to the last supposition; because, |
by the bearing of the two ships from the van to the center, we have the basis of a triangle which will be completely formed by the two courses steered by these two ships, and in which two angles and one side at least will always be known; which is full sufficient to find the rest, and consequently to judge the distance to be run before closing the enemy. Should the lee fleet get upon the other tack, and run large, still preserving the order of battle, they will be still sooner closed, and forced to action by the weather fleet, who have only to keep away from eight to nine points on the same tack, or run right before the wind. The weather fleet can always force the lee one to action, whatever movements they make: for, if they run with the wind right aft, in order of battle, they cannot (supposing an equality of sailing) avoid being closed, or broken nearly about the center by the weather line, which has only to steer two points on each tack nearer the wind than the retreating fleet. So that the rear of the weather fleet, having bore away no more than eight points, will find, at the end of a certain time, to have approached extremely near the center of the retreating fleet, and, in a short time more, will be able to bring their rear to action. The weather fleet have yet another advantage; because, as their ships have the wind on the quarter, they sail with greater celerity than those of the lee fleet, which run before the wind. The lee fleet being absolutely determined to fly, has therefore no other expedient left to prolong time, but to combat in the order of retreat, right before the wind, or on the same course as the pursuing fleet; for, other advantages are not to be relied on, if pursued by a victorious foe. If, from all that has been said, it results that it is not possible for a fleet of equal force to avoid an action, how then must it be with one much inferior? The more numerous has nothing to do but to form a detachment of superior sailors, which will chase strait before them and begin the action, while some others approach to finish it. Whence we may conclude that, when in presence of too powerful an enemy, it will never be possible to avoid an action, if he is determined to come to one.
TO DOUBLE THE ENEMY WHEN SUPERIOR TO HIM, AND TO LEEWARD OF
HIM.
THE lee fleet, having the superiority in number, ought to endeavour to range exactly a-breast and parallel to the weather file, so that the van or rear may extend beyond their line, in order to overreach them, by tacking in succession to double to windward their van or rear, and bring them between two fires. Provided this manoeuvre be properly executed, it will be impossible for the ships in the weather line, thus pressed, to continue long in their posts; for, there is no vessel closely attacked by two others of equal force which can long resist being overcome; since it is always in the power of one of them to get into such a position as to be able, without much danger on her side, to destroy the enemy in a very short time. But whether the most advantageous evolution is to double the van or the rear, is necessary to be considered; for both the one and the other have, in reality, so considerable an advantage, that either of them may in a very little time determine the fate of a battle. If the fleet with which you are engaged be to windward, either the van or their rear may be doubled; but the van may with the greatest facility; because, if they are engaged by the ships a-breast of |
them, those which are advanced a-head will be able, by making all sail, to get on the perpendicular to the direction of the wind with the van of the enemy, and tack in succession to gain the wind of them on the other board, thus keeping them to leeward: and, when they are come sufficiently to windward, they are again to go about, in order to keep the two head-most ships of the enemy's line continually under their fire. If there be two or three ships to tack in succession and gain the wind of the enemy, they may edge down on the van of the weather line at pleasure, keeping themselves little to windward of it; and, as that van-guard is already engaged by the other ships a-breast on the other side, she must necessarily be soon disabled. If they bear away, they must drop upon the line with which they are engaged to leeward, while the ships to windward still continue to cannonade them. If they attempt going about, in order to attack more closely the ships to windward, they will be raked, while in stays, by their opponents to leeward and to windward, who pouring into them whole broadsides, which they cannot return, must absolutely compleat their disorder. If they make sail in order to frustrate the design of the ships inclined to double, those with which they are engaged abreast to leeward have only to perform the same manoeuvre, and keep them under their fire; while the others, after having harassed them as much as possible, will do their best to perform the same manoeuvre on the succeeding ships. The captains defined to double the enemy ought to be men of known ability as well as of approved courage. They should not be ordered upon that expedition but in weather fit for sailing at the rate of three knots an hour: and, for the greater promptitude and certainty of success, none but the best going ships are to be employed in that sort of manoeuvre. If any of the ships in the van of the weather line happen to be disabled in their masts or yards, as will most probably be the case after having been between two fires, they will drop a-stern and run foul of the next which follows, and these again of their subsequent comrades; at last, disorder will become prevalent, by ships running foul of each other, or manoeuvring to avoid the same accident; so that the order of battle will be broke, while, on the other hand, the line to leeward is preserved with all the advantage possible. The ships which have gained the wind of the enemy will, by continuing their manoeuvre, augment the confusion, engaging, however, no more than they like: and if, by chance or misfortune, they should be crippled, it will not certainly be an easy matter for them to extricate themselves. But as they may, on the other tack, drop astern to windward of the enemy's line, or veer again like him, they must extricate themselves as well as they can, and always advantageously enough, if, by doubling the van-guard, they are able to throw it into disorder. If the rear of the lee fleet be extended beyond the stern-most ship of the weather line, they will be obliged, is they want to double the rear of the enemy to windward, to make sail and tack in succession; in which manoeuvre, the head-most ship of those defined for this service is to go about first: then, continuing to keep up a brisk cannonade as they come to the wind, they will go and heave about again a little to windward of the rear of the enemy, in order to bring their stem ships between two fires; and, should they have the good fortune to oblige them to bear away, they must go on successively from one ship to another, as long as they find they succeed in forcing them to give way. Should disorder take place in the rear of the weather fleet, it will not be near so prejudicial to the enemy as if it had happened in the van; on the contrary, it may turn out to be of some advantage to them. But the vessels combating to windward can easily withdraw from the fight, by backing a-stern, when they find themselves too hard pressed. |
Ships dismasted, or even deprived of the use of a topsail in the weather line, cannot, without great risk, retire from the order of battle (when under necessity to do so), nor pass to windward of their rear, in order to refit; for, vessels so circumstanced cannot stay; and even if they could, their stern would be for a great while exposed to the enemy, who, in that position, would soon render them motionless, by compleatly destroying the little rigging they had left. If such ships be obliged to veer, that manoeuvre making them approach nearer the enemy, they cannot avoid presenting their head to their opponent, a situation so dangerous, that little more is wanting to compleat their total destruction. But, supposing them able to finish their evolution, they will not have it in their power to pass to windward of their second a-stern, without running foul of her: for the distance of one hundred fathoms between the ships is not sufficient to give a disabled vessel, which has dropt above fifty fathoms to leeward in veering, sufficient time to gain to windward the distance necessary to pass a-head of the ship which immediately follows. Nothing but boats can therefore assist her, by towing, to get under cover: and yet that will not be executed without undergoing a very heavy fire from the enemy. If it be a van ship which is disabled, being doubled to windward by one or two of the lee line, it will be impossible for her to disengage herself: for, the two ships which have gained the wind of her will not leave her, nor suffer her to receive the least assistance from the boats or frigates which may be sent to her relief; and should the fleet she belongs to bear away and pass to leeward of her, which is the only manoeuvre they have to execute in these circumstances, the disabled ship will be sacrificed, they being unable, without the utmost difficulty, to give her the smallest assistance; for, every ship is engaged by the opponent which is a-breast of her, and the least remission of their fire, by fighting on the other side to assist, as they pass, the disabled ship, would give the lee enemy a decided advantage. TO DOUBLE THE ENEMY WHEN TO WINDWARD OF HIM.
THE ships of the weather line, having extended their van beyond that of the lee line, are to veer, in order to bring the head-most ships of the enemy's line between two fires. But, let them do as they will, there never can result so much advantage from this manoeuvre as when doubling a fleet to windward, because the disabled ships can always veer with facility. True it is, they cannot fail becoming at the same time the prey of the enemy; for, both those which have doubled them, and those with which they are engaged a-breast in the weather line, will always have it in their power jointly to press as close upon them as they think proper. If the ships which have doubled the van of the lee fleet, with which they are engaged, be disabled, they will be obliged, as they cannot make sail, to pass along the lee line; and they cannot escape being totally destroyed, if they do not bear away before the wind to get out of gun-shot; during which manoeuvre they cannot avoid being still in a very disagreeable situation. Should the stern-most ships of the weather fleet be disabled, in doubling the enemy's rear, they have only, if they want to extricate themselves, to drop a-stern, and let the two fleets advance a-head; and, after having refitted themselves, they will re-assume their posts. It has been proposed, to avoid being doubled by a fleet superior in numbers, to leave spaces in the length of the line, or to place the ships at such a distance from each other, as to render the length |
of the inferior line equal to that of the superior. But neither of these manoeuvres, nor any other of the sort which might be contrived on that subject, will ever be of service, if the opponents possess skill and ability; for these will always dispose their ships in such a manner, that several ships of the inferior fleet will receive the fire of many at once, and will consequently be obliged soon to give way. TO FORCE OR TRAVERSE THE ENEMY's LINE.
THIS is a manoeuvre the lee fleet may execute to gain the advantage of the wind. It is performed by the van ship, if within gun-shot, tacking when she and the center ship of the weather line are on a perpendicular to the direction of the wind: then all the lee fleet tack in succession, and thus may pass through the center of the enemy's line, or perhaps a little more towards the enemy's van, and go about again in succession to windward of him. But as he will not be long, without doubt, before he performs the same manoeuvre, he will thus be able to regain the wind, if you do not force him to give way under your fire before his evolution is finished. The enemy to windward may even cause his van ship to tack, as well as the rest of the van-guard to follow in succession, as soon as the leading ship of lee fleet shall have passed through his line and be ready to go about, by which means he will bring them between two fires. This manoeuvre, well executed, might perhaps give no little trouble to the ship attempting to force the line. This evolution may be performed with advantage, if, by some accident or fault in the manoeuvring, the center division of the weather line be separated from their van or rear. For example, when the center division to windward is incumbered with disabled ships, then those of the center division to leeward are, with all sails set, to tack in succession, and force with promptitude through the weather fleet, to augment their disorder, leaving their own van division to engage that of the enemy on the other tack. TO PREVENT THE LINE BEING FORCED.
WHEN the lee fleet go about in succession, in order to traverse the enemy, the whole line to windward are to tack together and at the same time, to get upon the same board as the enemy, who will neither be able to join nor to traverse them To perform this evolution with advantage, you must let some of the van ships of the traversing fleet pass to windward, then go all rapidly about, in order to put and keep them between two fires; thus you may succeed in destroying them, without their own fleet being able to give them any effectual assistance. It is easy to perceive, from what has been laid, that there is little occasion to fear being traversed, as such a manoeuvre may turn to be more prejudicial than advantageous to those who perform it. Nevertheless, it may and ought to be put in practice when the weather fleet leave such vacancies between their divisions as to allow some ships of the lee fleet to be inactive. In this case, the ships |
with all sails sets, in succession, and pass through these intervals of the weather line, in order to double the center division, or any other part of it, and bring it between two fires; while the other ships which are a-breast, and on the other side of it, cannonade from to leeward. TO BRING A FLEET TO AN ANCHOR.
A CONSIDERABLE fleet ought to anchor in three parallel lines, at the proper distance which the length of the columns generally require. The ships being a hundred fathoms from each other, in the line of their head-most ship, which is to be on one of the close-hauled lines of bearing; the van and rear of the columns are to correspond with each other exactly in the direction of the wind, that they may with ease get under way, and form the order of battle with facility, so as to be able to dispute the weather gage with the enemy, if there should come one. As this evolution is to be performed in moderate weather, the fleet being in order on three columns, they are all at the same time to bring their ships head to wind under their topsails, and let go their anchors together, clewing up the topsails, with all possible dispatch, head to wind; putting the foot of the sails in the tops, and loosening the sheets before hauling them down; then veering away an equal quantity of cable, to preserve their distances. When it blows so fresh as to require the topsails being reefed, two cables length distance may be kept between the ships, and even three if it be likely to blow hard. If the fleet do not exceed twenty ships, they may anchor on one of the lines of bearing, or parallel to the coast, in places where trade winds are common, provided they blow in the direction of the land; for, in all cases, they must be in a condition to get under way at the first sight of the enemy, whose approach is never to be waited for at anchor; because, if it be dangerous for a single ship, it must be still more so for a fleet, the movements of which are interrupted by the difficulty there is in getting with celerity under way ships which are moored, and which, in that case, are not much able mutually to support one another, as it is absolutely requisite in a fleet. TO GET A FLEET UNDER WAY.
ALL the fleet being short a-peek, the lee column is to get under way first, and bring to all at the same time, just as they find themselves after casting. The center column is then to perform the same manoeuvre, and cast likewise as soon as the other column is brought to; and both columns will remain in that same position of lying to as the lee column, till the weather column which is still a-peek, having weighed, should be also under way. The three columns may often be got under way all at once: but, to execute this, the fleet must all act together, and with equal ardour; for the weather ships must not at any rate be under way before the lee ones. If it be necessary to get immediately in order of battle, the weather columns are at once to bear away two points together, that they may take their posts in the line of battle a-head of the lee column. |
If the fleet be moored on a line, and head to wind, the rear ship may get under way first, and haul immediately by the wind; the others in succession, from the rear to the van, can easily take their station in her wake, so that the rear ship will become leader. If the fleet be moored in a line head to wind, they may all get under way at the same time; but the van ship is to bring to, while the rest, casting the other way, would stand on by the wind on the same tack on which they have cast, and come to tack successively in her wake, to form the order of battle. If you wished to be more to windward, the fleet having all at the same time got under way, and cast all on the same tack, the van ship might heave about under an easy sail; and all the rest, continuing close hauled on the same tack they got under way, will come, in succession, in his wake, when they are to stay. Observe, at the same time, the rear ships are to carry all possible sail. TO PUT A FLEET IN A POSITION OF DEFENCE IN A ROAD-STEAD.
WHEN a road-stead is sufficiently spacious, and the entrance not too much extended, the ships are to be moored with springs, in two parallel lines from the entrance to the bottom of the bay; the van ship so near the land that it should be impossible for the enemy to pass between them and the shore, and he may be obliged to pass between the two lines, the van ships of which must be supported by good batteries on shore, at the two extremities of the boom, which they must take care to have constructed from one side to the other, when possible, or only before the ships, if it cannot be done otherwise. Besides this, there should be gun-boats destined to post themselves a-head or a-stern of the ships attempting to force the port. There are also to be fire-ships moored within the points, that they may be to windward of the enemy after they have got into the port, supposing them to have been able to force the entrance. THE EXERCISE OF THE GREAT GUNS.
IN order to render seamen expert in the use of artillery, they are frequently practised in the following exercise; which is here introduced, because, without skill in annoying an enemy, the most able manoeuvres may fail in their desired objects. Upon beating to arms (every person having immediately repaired to his quarters) the midshipman, commanding a number of guns, is to see that they are not without every necessary article, as (at every gun) a spunge, powder-horn, with it's priming wires, and a sufficient quantity of powder, shot, crow, handspec, bed, quoin, train-tackle, &c. sending, without delay, for a supply-of any thing that may be missing; and, for the greater certainty of not overlooking any deficiency, he is to give strict orders to each captain under him, to make the like examination at his respective gun, and to take care that every requisite is in a serviceable condition, which he is to report accordingly. And, for the still more certain and speedy account being taken upon these occasions, the midshipman is to give each man his charge at quarters, (as expressed in the form of the monthly report) who is to search for his particular implements, and, not finding them, is immediately to acquaint his captain, that, upon his report to the midshipman, they may be replaced. |
The man who takes care of the powder is to place himself on the opposite side of the deck from that where we engage, except when fighting both sides at once, when he is to be amid-ships. He is not to suffer any other man to take a cartridge from him but he who is appointed to serve the gun with that article, either in time of a real engagement, or at exercise. Lanthorns are not to brought to quarters in the night, until the midshipman gives his orders for so doing to the person he charges with that article. Every thing being in its place, and not the least lumber in the way of the guns, the exercise begins with, 1st. Silence. – At this word every one is to observe a silent attention to the officers. 2d. Cast loose your guns. – The muzzle lashing is to be taken off from the guns; and, being coiled up in a small compass, is to be made fast to the eye-bolt above the port. The lashing-tackles at the same time to be cast loose, and the middle of the breeching, seized to the thimble of the pomillion. The spunge to be taken down, and, with the crow, handspec, &c. laid upon the deck, by the gun. When prepared for engaging an enemy, the seizing within the clinch of the breeching is to be cut, that the gun may come sufficiently within-board for loading, and that the force of the recoil may be more spent before it acts upon the breeching. 3d. Level your guns. – The breech of your metal is to be raised so as to admit the foot of the bed's being placed upon the axle-tree of the carriage, with the quoin upon the bed, both their ends being even one with the other. When levelled for firing, the bed is to be lashed to the bolt which supports the inner end of it, that it may not be thrown out of its place by the violence of the gun's motion, when hot with frequent discharges. 4th. Take out your tompions. – The tompion is to be taken out of the gun's mouth, and left hanging by it's laniard. 5th. Run out your guns. – With the tackles hooked to the upper bolts of the carriage, the gun is to bowsed out as close as possible, without the assistance of crows or handspecs; taking care at the same time to keep the breeching clear of the trucks, by hauling it through the rings; it is then to be bent so as to run clear when the gun is fired. When the gun is out, the tackle-falls are to be laid along-side the carriages in neat fakes, that when the gun, by recoiling, overhauls them, they may not be subject to get foul, as they would if in a common coil. 6th. If the cartridge is to be pierced with the priming wire, and the vent filled with powder, the pan also is to be filled; and the flat space, having a score through it at the end of the pan, is to be covered, and this part of the priming is to be bruised with the round part of the horn. The apron is to be laid over, and the horn hung up out of danger from the flash of the priming. 7th. Point your guns. – At this command the gun is, in the first place, to be elevated to the height of the object, by means of the side-sights; and then the person pointing is to direct his fire by the upper-sight, having a crow on one side and a handspec on the other, to heave the gun by his direction till he catches the object. The men who heave the gun for pointing are to stand between the ship's side and their crows or handspecs, to escape the injury they might otherwise receive from their being struck against them, or splintered by a shot; and the man who attends the captain with a match is to bring it at the word, "Point your guns;" and, kneeling upon one knee opposite the train-truck of the carriage, and at such a distance as to be able to touch the priming, is to turn his head from the gun, and keep blowing gently upon the lighted match to keep it clear from ashes. And, as the missing of an enemy in action, by neglect or want of coolness, is most inexcusable, it is particularly recommended to have |
the people thoroughly instructed in pointing well, and taught to know the ill consequences of not taking proper means to hit their mark; wherefore they should be made to elevate their guns to the utmost nicety, and then to point with the same exactness; and, having caught the object through the upper-sight, at the word, 8th. Fire. – The match is instantly to be put to the bruised part of the priming; and, when the gun is discharged, the vent is to be closed, in order to smother any spark of fire that may remain in the chamber of the gun; and the man who spunges is immediately to place himself by the muzzle of the gun in readiness. 9th. Spunge your gun. – The spunge is to be rammed down to the bottom of the chamber, and then twisted round, to extinguish effectually any remains of fire; and, when drawn out, to be struck against the out-side of the muzzle, to shake off any sparks or scraps of the cartridge that may have come out with it; and next, it's end is to be shifted ready for loading; and while this is doing, the man appointed to provide a cartridge is to go to the box, and by the time the spunge is out of the gun, he is to have it ready. 10th. Load with cartridge. – The cartridge (with the bottom end first, seam-downwards, and a wad after it) is to be put into the gun, and thrust a little way within the mouth, when the rammer is to be entered; the cartridge is then to be forcibly rammed down, and the captain at the same time is to keep his priming-wire in the vent, and, feeling the cartridge, is to give the word home, when the rammer is to be drawn, and not before. While this is doing, the man appointed to provide a shot is to provide one (or two, according to the order at that time) ready at the muzzle, with a wad likewise, and when the rammer is drawn, at the word, 11th. Shot your guns. – The shot and wad upon it are to be put into the gun, and thrust a little way down, when the rammer is to be entered as before. The shot and wad are to be rammed down to the cartridge, and there have a couple of forcible strokes, when the rammer is to be drawn, and laid out of the way of the guns and tackles, if the exercise or action is continued; but if it is over, the spunge is to be secured in the place it is at all times kept in. 12th. Put in your tompions. – The tompions to be put into the muzzle of the cannon. 13th. House your guns. – The seizing is to be put on again upon the clinched end of the breeching, leaving it no slacker than to admit of the guns being housed with ease. The quoin is to be taken from under the breech of the gun, and the bed, full resting upon the bolt, within the carriage, thrust under, till the foot of it falls off the axle-tree, leaving it to rest upon the end which projects out from the foot. The metal is to be let down upon this. The gun is to be placed exactly square, and the muzzle is to be close to the wood, in it's proper place for passing the muzzle lashings. 14th. Secure your guns. – The muzzle lashings must first be made secure, and then with one tackle (having all it's parts equally tight with the breeching) the gun is to be lashed. The other tackle is to be bowsed tight, and by itself made fast, that it may be ready to cast off for lashing a second breeching. Care must be taken to hook the first tackle to the upper bolt of the carriage, that it may not other-wise obstruct the reeving of the second breeching, and to give the greater length to the end part of the fall. No pains must be spared in bowsing the lashing very tight, that the gun may have the least play that is possible, as their being loose may be productive of very dangerous consequences. |
The quoin, crow, and handspec, are to be put under the gun, the powder-horn hung up in it's place, &c. Being engaged at any time when there is a large swell, a rough sea, or in squally weather, &c. as the ship may be liable to be suddenly much heeled, the port-tackle fall is to be kept clear, and (whenever the working of the gun will admit of it) the man charged with that office is to keep it in his hand; at the same time the muzzle lashing is to be kept fast to the ring of the port, and being hauled tight, is to be fastened to the eye-bolt over the port-hole, so as to be out of the gun's way, in firing, in order to haul it in at any time of danger. This precaution is not to be omitted, when engaging to the windward, any more than when to the leeward, those situations being very subject to alter at too short a warning. A train-tackle is always to be made use of with the lee-guns, and the man stationed to attend it is to be very careful in preventing the gun's running out at an improper time. EPITOME OF A GENERAL ENGAGEMENT.
THE whole oeconomy of a naval engagement may be arranged under the following heads, viz. the preparation; the action; and the repair, or refitting for the purposes of navigation. The preparation is begun by issuing an order to clear the ship for action, which is repeated by the boatswain and his mates at all the hatchways, or stair-cases, leading to the different batteries. As the cannon cannot be worked while the hammocs are suspended in their usual situations, it becomes necessary to remove them as quick as possible. By this circumstance a double advantage is obtained: the batteries of cannon are immediately cleared of an incumbrance, and the hammocs are converted into a sort of parapet, to prevent the execution of small shot on the quarter-deck, tops, and fore-castle. At the summons of the boatswain, Up all hammocs! every sailor repairs to his own; and, having stowed his bedding properly, he cords it firmly with a lashing, or line, provided for that purpose. He then carries it to the quarter-deck, poop, or fore-castle, or wherever it may be necessary. As each side of the quarter-deck and poop is furnished with a double net-work, supported by iron cranes fixed immediately above the gunnel, or top of the ship's side, the hammocs thus corded are firmly stowed by the quarter-master between the two parts of the netting, so as to form an excellent barrier. The tops, waist, and fore-castle, are then fenced in the same manner. Whilst these offices are performed below, the boatswain and his mates are employed in securing the sail-yards, to prevent them from tumbling down when the ship is cannonaded, as she might thereby be disabled, and rendered incapable of attack, retreat, or pursuit. The yards are now like-wise secured by strong chains, or ropes, additional to those by which they are usually suspended. The boatswain also provides the necessary materials to repair the rigging, wherever it may be damaged by the shot of the enemy; and to supply whatever parts of it may be entirely destroyed. The carpenter and his crew in the mean-while prepare his shot plugs and mauls, to close up any dangerous breaches that may be made near the surface of the water; and provide the iron-work necessary to refit the chain-pumps, in case their machinery should be wounded in the engagement. The gunner, with his mates and quarter-gunners, is busied in examining the cannon of the different batteries, to see that their charges are thoroughly dry and fit for execution: to have every thing ready for furnish- |
ing the great guns and small arms with powder, as soon as the action begins: and to keep a sufficient number of cartridges continually filled, to supply the place of those expended in battle. The master and his mates are attentive to have the sails properly trimmed, according to the situation of the ship; and to reduce or multiply them, as occasion requires, with all possible expedition. The lieutenants visit the different decks, to see that they are effectually cleared of all incumbrance, so that nothing may retard the execution of the artillery; and to enjoin the other officers to diligence and alertness, in making the necessary dispositions for the expected engagement, so that every thing may be in readiness at a moment's warning. When the hostile ships have approached each other to a competent distance, the drums beat to arms. The boatswain and his mates pipe, all hands to quarters! at every hatchway. All the persons appointed to manage the great guns immediately repair to their respective stations. The crows, handspecs, rammers, spunges, powder-horns, matches and train-tackles, are placed in order by the side of every cannon. The hatches are immediately laid, to prevent any one from deserting his post by escaping into the lower apartments. The marines are drawn up in rank and file, on the quarterdeck, poop and fore-castle. The lashings of the great guns are cast loose, and the tompions withdrawn. The whole artillery, above and below, is run out at the ports, and levelled to the pointblank range ready for firing. The necessary preparations being completed, and the officers and crew ready at their respective stations, to obey the order, the commencement of the action is determined by the mutual distance and situation of the adverse ships, or by the signal from the commander in chief of the fleet or squadron. The cannon being levelled in parallel rows, projecting from the ship's side, the most natural order of battle is evidently to range the ships a-breast of each other, especially if the engagement is general. The most convenient distance is properly within the point-blank range of a musket, so that all the artillery may do effectual execution. The action usually begins by a vigorous cannonade, accompanied with the whole efforts of the swivel guns and the small-arms. The method of firing in platoons, or vollies of cannon at once, appears inconvenient in the sea-service, and perhaps should never be attempted, unless in the battering of a fortification. The sides and decks of the ship, although sufficiently strong for all the purposes of war, would be too much shaken by so violent an explosion and recoil. The general rule observed on this occasion throughout the ship, is to load, fire, and spunge the guns with all possible expedition, yet without confusion or precipitation. The captain of each gun is particularly enjoined to fire when the piece is properly directed to it's object, that the shot may not be fruitlessly expended. The lieutenants, who command the different batteries, traverse the deck to see that the battle is prosecuted with vivacity; and to exhort and animate the men to their duty. The midshipmen second these injunctions, and give the necessary assistance, wherever it may be required, at the guns committed to their charge. The gunner should be particularly attentive that all the artillery is sufficiently supplied with powder, and that the cartridges are carefully conveyed along the decks in covered boxes. The havock produced by a continuation of this mutual assault may be readily conjectured by the reader's imagination. The defeated ship having acknowledged the victor, by striking her colours, is immediately taken possession of by the conqueror, who secures her officers and crew as prisoners in his own ship and invests his principal officer with the command of the prize until a captain is appointed by the commander in chief. The engagement being concluded, they begin the repair: the cannon are secured by their breechings and tackles, with all convenient expedition. Whatever sails have been rendered unserviceable |
are unbent; and the wounded masts and yards struck upon the deck, and fished or replaced by others. The standing rigging is knotted, and the running rigging spliced wherever necessary. Proper sails are bent in the room of those which have been displaced as useless. The carpenter and his crew are employed in repairing the breaches made in the ship's hull, by shot-plugs, pieces of plank, and sheet lead. The gunner and his assistants are busied in replenishing the allotted number of charged cartridges, to supply the place of those which have been expended, and in refitting whatever furniture of the cannon may have been damaged by the late action. Such are the usual process and consequences of an engagement between two ships of war, which may be considered as descriptive of a general battle between fleets or squadrons. The latter, however, involves a greater variety of incidents, and necessarily requires more comprehensive skill and judgment in the commanding officer. 
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NAVAL. TACTICS.
PART THE SECOND.
HAVING, in the preceding part of this subject, shewn the system of Tactics which prevails at the present day; we now come to give the deviations from that system, which have been proposed by M. Bourde de Villehuet. Not wishing to alter the customary orders of battle and retreat, it is only proposed that a fleet should be, for its common order of sailing, in what is called the order of convoy. This order (says M. Bourde de Villehuet) is the most simple, and the only one a fleet ought to be in at all times; because, first, it is easily preserved; secondly, it cannot be discomposed in twenty out of the thirty-two shifts of wind, and is easily re-formed in the twelve other changes; and finally, it is easy to pass from that order to those proper for the security of a fleet, in all possible cases, either to preserve one’s self, to attack, or to defend. THE ORDER OF CONVOY
IS that which a fleet holds in making a strait course, the ships being all in the wake of one another, steering on the same point of the compass, and forming a right line. If the fleet be numerous, they may be divided into three columns, which are to be ranged parallel to each other, that of the admiral occupying the middle, and steering all three the same course. Thus it may be observed that the order of convoy disregards a line of bearing; and this is its essential difference from the first and fifth orders of sailing. TO FORM THE ORDER OF CONVOY IN ONE LINE.
WHEN the fleet is in no particular order of sailing, the leading ship is to veer sufficiently for the others to get in her wake and steer the same course she holds. Generally, it is the commanding officer who takes this post, when the squadron is not numerous. |
That the order may be the sooner formed, every ship of the fleet or squadron shall chase at the same time that which is to be a-head of her in the line, taking care to manoeuvre in such a manner as to avoid running foul of those which cross her fore-foot in endeavouring to join their leaders in the line. Therefore, such as are to leeward of others shall take care not to persist obstinately in weathering them; but, they must back, or go a-stern if necessary, by keeping away a little more. Such as shall already be in the column, and are to be more a-stern, must bring to till they are in their posts, or stand on under a very easy sail, that each ship may contribute to the celerity of forming the order. TO FORM THE ORDER OF CONVOY IN THREE COLUMNS.
THE leaders of each of the three divisions are to place themselves in a line right a-breast one of another: and they must take care to keep a proper distance between themselves, according to the length of the columns, which will accelerate the progress of the disposition. Then every ship of each particular squadron, chasing that which is to be next a-head of her, will come and take their stations a-stern of one another at the rear of the leading ship of the division, and steer directly after her. This order, which in the practice is very easily held, has the advantage of keeping the fleet close and connected, without causing any delay in its progress. The best sailers can regulate their velocity by that of those which are inferior to them in sailing, and, these on the other hand may, with a little attention, carry as much sail as the weather will admit, by which means all imaginable courses may, without breaking, be steered. TO CHANGE FROM THE ORDER OF CONVOY, IN ONE LINE, TO THE ORDER OF BATTLE, CONTINUING ON THE SAME TACK.
THE headmost ship is to haul close by the wind on the same tack, and the rest of the fleet are to make the same movement in succession, observing the proper distances from each other. TO CHANGE FROM THE ORDER OF CONVOY, IN ONE LINE, TO THAT OF BATTLE ON THE OTHER TACK.
THE headmost ship is to veer and to come to the wind on the other tack; then all the vessels of the fleet are to perform the same manoeuvre in succession. Another method. &ndashp; After having formed the order of battle on the same tack, as has been shewn before, the van ship is to tack; and all the ships of the fleet are to follow in succession, to form the order of battle on the other tack. Another method. &ndashp; If you are steering a course in the order of convoy, four points large, the order of battle on the other tack may be formed at once, by all the ships veering or staying together. |
TACTICS. PLATE XVI.
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TO CHANGE FROM THE ORDER OF CONVOY, IN THREE COLUMNS,
TO THE ORDER OF BATTLE ON THE SAME TACK. IF the fleet has the wind on the beam, or between close hauled and eight points large, [Tactics, pl. XVI. fig. 93.] the ships of the lee column are all to bring to at the same time. The other two columns stand on. When the leader of the weather column brings the lee leader to bear on the close-hauled line, he tacks, and is followed in succession. The centre column does the same. But, as the weather column has a greater distance to run, it must make all possible sail, while the center column need not make so much; because the center column is not to begin to haul its wind till the center ship of the weather column has got on the close-hauled line. The lee column is to follow in the same manner, when the center ship of the center column is close by the wind. If the wind be more than eight points, or right aft, [Tactics, pl. XVI. fig. 94.] the column which is to form the van guard in the order of battle is instantly to haul its wind in succession, with all sails set; while the two others, continuing their course, will put themselves successively by the wind, on the close-hauled line upon which the order of battle is to be formed, and consequently in the wake of the weather column. If the columns be close on a wind, it then becomes a case within the usual fifth order of sailing, treated of in the first part. TO CHANGE FROM THE ORDER OF CONVOY, IN THREE COLUMNS, TO THE ORDER OF BATTLE ON THE OTHER TACK.
THE fleet might be put first in order of battle, on the same tack; then, making the ships tack in succession, they would be in order of battle on the other tack. But, as this method might be too long, the time of evolution may be diminished, [Tactics, pl. XVI. fig. 95.] by making the two weather columns bring to, when sailing between close-hauled and eight points large, while the ships of the lee column veer in succession and keep their wind on the other tack. The center ship of the lee column having veered, the center column is to fill, the leader of which bears away, running exactly with the wind right aft, and is followed in succession, by the ships of his division, till they are in the wake of the lee column, then on the other tack; when the leader of the center column hauls by the wind, the ships of his division hauling in succession. When the center ship of the center column has bore away, the weather squadron manoeuvres in the same manner, and thereby completes the order of battle. TO CHANGE FROM THE ORDER OF CONVOY TO THAT OF RETREAT.
WHETHER the fleet be in the order of convoy in one line or in three columns, they are first to form in the order of battle on the same tack; thence they are to pass to the order of retreat, in the manner directed in the first part. |
TO CHANGE FROM THE ORDER OF BATTLE TO THE ORDER OF CONVOY,
IN ONE LINE, ON THE SAME TACK. THE van ship is to bear away as far as the intended course, and the rest are to execute the same manoeuvre in succession; so that, when the rear ship shall have made the same movement, the evolution will be compleated, and the order of convoy formed on the same tack. TO CHANGE FROM THE ORDER OF BATTLE TO THE ORDER OF CONVOY, IN ONE LINE, ON THE OTHER TACK.
THE van ship is to tack and run one point large, till she can bear away, under the stern of the rear ship, as far as the course which the fleet is to hold. All the ships are to perform the same manoeuvre at the same points, to change the order and get upon the other tack. The van ship, instead of tacking, may veer and run a little time before the wind, before getting on. the other tack: then she will heave to the wind on the fleet’s course, without fear of breaking through the rear. This movement is shorter, and to be prefered, since the order of convoy is never held to keep by the wind. TO CHANGE FROM THE ORDER OF BATTLE TO THE ORDER OF CONVOY, IN THREE COLUMNS, ON THE SAME TACK.
THE three leaders of the columns are to bear away together, and steer on the intended course; then the ships of each squadron are to execute the same manoeuvre in succession, following the same direction; so that the three rear ships, veering at the same time in the wake of their respective columns, will compleat the evolution. The columns will find themselves too distant from each other; but, as there is nothing which disturbs them, and they have the wind right aft or very large, it will be easy for them to close as much as may be necessary. TO CHANGE FROM THE LINE OF BATTLE TO THE ORDER OF CONVOY, IN THREE COLUMNS, ON THE OTHER TACK.
THE three leading ships of the columns are to heave in stays at the same time, and bear away on the perpendicular of the wind on the other tack: then the ships of each squadron are to perform the same manoeuvre in succession; and, when the rear ships shall have turned about and be in a line with their respective columns, and the leaders of the weather divisions shall, by crowding all the sails, have come a-breast of the van ship of the lee squadron, the evolution will be compleated. If the fleet is to steer more large than the perpendicular to the wind, it will be easily formed, by making the leaders and their columns bear away in succession, then putting afterwards the columns at the necessary distance from each other. |
TO CHANGE FROM THE ORDER OF RETREAT
TO THE ORDER OF CONVOY, IN ONE LINE. ONE of the wings is to haul together close by the wind, on the same tack as the line of bearing on which they are formed, in order to bear away in succession at the point of the angle, in the wake of the other wing; the ships of which are to run with the wind four points large, on their line of bearing; and, when the last ship of the weather wing is in the wake of her line, the order of convoy is formed. If necessary to sail more large, the van ship and the rest of the fleet may bear away more, in succession: or should you not wish to keep away so much, the same ships may keep their wind more, and follow the van ship in succession. TO CHANGE FROM THE ORDER OF RETREAT
TO THE ORDER OF CONVOY, IN THREE COLUMNS. IT is necessary first to form the order of battle, and to pass from that to the order of convoy in three columns, as just before directed. TO RESTORE THE ORDER OF CONVOY IN ONE LINE, WHEN THE WIND COMES A-HEAD MORE THAN CLOSE-HAULED.
IT is easy to conceive that the order of convoy cannot be disturbed by all the shifts of wind, as long as it is more abaft than the starboard and larboard lines of bearing; because the ships, steering large in the wake of each other, can easily maintain their posts, having only their sails to trim, whether the fleet be in one line or in several columns. But, if the wind draws more a-head than one of the lines above-mentioned, it is evident, the ships being obliged to veer, or pay off, all at the same time on the same tack, the order will be disturbed. We shall now proceed to give the method to restore it on the same tack, when the fleet is in one line in the order of convoy. If we suppose the fleet steering large on the starboard tack, and the wind come suddenly right a-head, which would immediately throw all the sails flat a-back on their masts, the van ship is to cast instantly to port, and bring to on the starboard tack, while all the rest of the fleet are to box off, all together and at the same time, to starboard, and make all sail, in order to come with celerity close by the wind on the larboard tack, and get into the wake of the van ship, then to tack and take their stations successively under an easy sail, and bringing to likewise till the rear ship, which has a good way to run, be in her post. Should you wish to get on the other tack, then the van ship is to cast to starboard, to bring to on the larboard tack by the wind; then the rest of the fleet would cast the other way, to tack afterwards successively in the wake of the ship which lies to, and take their station there, as has been said before; with this difference, that, after the restoring of the order, you would find yourself on the larboard tack. |
If the sudden shift of wind be not quite a-head, or if it be six points, or between six and twelve, the van ship is, nevertheless, to bring to on one tack, while the rest of the fleet, casting on the starboard, make all sail to gain her wake, to tack there, and thus regain their stations. The order of convoy may be restored by a still shorter and more simple method, but which will cause the fleet to drop to leeward more than the former does. In the same case as the last, when the wind comes right a-head, the whole fleet is to pay off on the same tack, if the ships are all on one line, and the rear ship must bring to, while the rest of the ships, running five points large (if the wind has shifted six points beyond the direction of close-hauled), will come and bring to successively a-head of the rear ship on that line of bearing which they are to hold, observing that such ships are to carry a greater and proportionable press of sail, as, being nearer the van ship, have consequently more way to run before they can regain their posts. To know how many points or degrees the weather ships have to run large to get into their stations, add eight points or ninety degrees to the half of the points or degrees the wind has shifted beyond one of the two lines of bearing: and, in regaining your posts, you will have the quantity of points by which you differ from the course you steered. For example, if you were steering East, and the wind shift to that point of the compass, it will have shifted six points beyond one of the directions close-hauled, which you would have been able to preserve on the same tack; so that, adding half of six points to eight, you will have eleven points difference from the East course which you steered before, and you will consequently sail N W by N on one tack, to restore the order, or S W by S on the other, to gain your posts close by the wind in a line with the rear ship; which, bearing West before the shift of wind, ought now to bear S S W, if close to the wind on the starboard tack, or N N W if posted upon a bow-and-quarter line on the larboard tack. Therefore, to regain their stations in the line, the ships run five points large. Had the wind shifted four points only, it would have blown E S E; and the ships, taking their posts on the starboard tack, to the N E of the rear ship which is lying-to, would have steered N N W to fall into their stations, and restore the order of convoy on the same tack. TO RESTORE THE ORDER OF CONVOY, IN THREE COLUMNS,
WHEN DISTURBED BY A SUDDEN SHIFT OF WIND RIGHT A-HEAD. WHEN the wind shifts on a sudden right a-head, or between the two lines of bearing, the order of convoy is to be restored by the whole fleet casting the same way all together, leaving the three rear ships of the columns lying-to, close to the wind on the tack on which you purpose to continue close-hauled; while the ships of the three columns running large all together on a course (to leeward of the first), which must always be determined by half the number of points or degrees the wind has shifted beyond the direction of close-hauled, added to eight points or ninety degrees, will bear away with ease for their stations in the close-hauled line of bearing, which they are to hold to the windward side of their rear ship; where they will arrive successively, by carrying more sail according as they may be nearer to the van, because in that case they have a greater distance to run. |
OF THE CONVOY OF MERCHANT SHIPS, UNDER THE PROTECTION OF MEN OF WAR.
TO take the requisite care of a large fleet, there should be in the convoy a number of frigates, which are to be distributed a-head, a-stern, and on the wings of the fleet, which is always to be kept in the order of convoy on three, four, five, or six columns, according to the number it may be composed of: some other frigates are also to be sent on the look-out, in order to be informed of what passes at a certain distance, and warned in good time of the approach of the enemy. If the frigates which are sent to look out should discover an enemy of superior force, they will make it known by signal, and perhaps it may be thought advisable that they should steer a different course from that of the fleet, in order to deceive the hostile ships in sight. The men of war are to hold themselves in the order of convoy a little a-head and to windward of the weather column of the fleet; because, in that position, they will be able with promptitude to attend wherever their presence may be necessary. The frigates will repeat the signals from one to another with celerity and exactness, that their purport may, with all possible expedition, be made known to the commanding officer, who, on the other hand, must not neglect to have all suspicious and neutral ships chased, and even stopped, by the frigates about him, and which are always to be supported by one or two line of battle ships, according to the exigency of circumstances. The degree of progress which the whole fleet will make will be regulated by that of the worst-going ships, which, however, are to be abandoned when found to cause too great a loss of time; for, sometimes, it is better to risk a small loss than to expose the whole by delay. There will be placed between the columns, sloops of war, and other swift-sailing light vessels, to maintain order, and keep the ships in their stations. Their particular business will be to get the tardy ships to make more sail, and to oblige those which may be out of their post to resume it; in the evening they will give an account, to the frigates having charge of going the round, of those which have not well manoeuvered; and these will make their report to the commodore. During the night the same order will be maintained, except with respect to the look-out frigates, which are to be called in within a certain distance of the fleet, and which are to be allowed lights as well as the rest of the men of war. They are to be particularly careful to oblige all straggling ships to return to the convoy, and to fire, without hesitating, on all strange vessels coming from the main sea, in order to give the alarm, Every night they are to be supported on the wings by some line of battle ships. |
NAVAL TACTICS.
PART THE THIRD.
WE now come to the System of Tactics which has been proposed by the Viscount de Grenier; and which is certainly a bold innovation upon the tactics of the present day. The additions and alterations of preceding writers did not subvert the established principle, but were accommodated to it. They never thought of altering THE ORDER OF BATTLE: this, however, the Viscount has done, and consequently has rendered necessary a different mode of evolution. The productions of an ingenious mind are seldom barren of utility; and, although these tactics should never be practised, some of the reasoning, upon which the old system is condemned, and by which the new one is defended, may contribute to improve the art of naval war. PRELIMINARY REFLECTIONS, AND DESCRIPTION OF
A NEW ORDER OF BATTLE. MANY naval expeditions, three battles in which I* have been personally engaged, the analysis of naval tactics, the attentive perusal of the journals and accounts published on the manoeuvres of our fleets and on those of our enemies, have made me sensible of the necessity of improving the art of defence and attack at sea. My encouragement in this undertaking has been so much the greater, as the success did not seem to me impossible. I have considered the art of war by sea in a new point of view: I have laid down new principles, and have endeavoured to present them in a succinct and intelligible manner. Should such officers, as come to a knowledge of them, not coincide with me in opinion, I hope they will do justice to my intentions. Should men of abilities, diverted of prejudice, analyse my work, and allow that it may be of some utility, it will be a satisfaction to me to witness, in my life-time, the success of so pure an intention as mine, the end of which was only to employ my leisure hours in the investigation of the following objects.
* We have thought it right, in translating this work, to adopt the stile of the original, in the use of the first person: we must therefore remember that the Viscount de Grenier is speaking of himself. |
first, To render ineffectual part of an enemy’s forces, in order to collect the whole strength of a fleet against those attacking or attacked; and, thereby, to be able to overcome the remaining part with more facility and certainty.Secondly, Never to present to the enemy any part of a fleet without its being flanked; so that, were the enemy to attack those parts which hitherto were ever reckoned weak, he should find himself even defeated.The art of war does not consist in the mere bravery and obstinate intrepidity of individuals; its chief object is to become master of the field of battle, to take possession of the enemy even while he is able to defend himself, or to put him to flight through terror. Thus it is that the glory of a nation may be characterised, and the fame of a military corps may obtain immortality. The NEW TACTICS which I am going to propose are naturally calculated to confirm these useful truths, provided the officer, who commands a fleet governed by my new principles, do not lose sight of the essential object I have just pointed out to him; and if he, accordingly, cause the divisions of that fleet to manoeuvre so as to draw part of that of the enemy out of the whole body of it, and to keep that detached part to windward because, in such a position, this very part must be vanquished by all the united forces of the fleet ranged in the new order, before it can be assisted by the remainder of the fleet which would be to leeward. Such is what I propose to prove beyond doubt; and I hope this assertion will appear so much the more just, as it will be evident that, in all cases whatever, the admiral will have no occasion to perplex himself with any more than two positions, on both tacks necessary for the three squadrons of his fleet, and whence result four general orders in each position. The combination of the movements of these orders will produce above 240 different positions, or, in one word, all the possible positions which may enable one to face the enemy with celerity, without disunion, (even after having been separated) on all the points of the compass where that enemy might present himself, either in attack or defence, to windward or to leeward. Each squadron in these positions, in passing from one order to another, would never have any other course to make but one of the two close-hauled courses, or their opposite; and in which, finally, these same squadrons might easily fall together in order of battle, on one part of the enemy’s forces in those shifts of wind which often happen during engagements, and which have frequently occasioned the loss of a battle to a fleet ranged according to the usual order. It appears to me, that the art of war by sea has not hitherto been considered in its true point of view; and that the TREATISES OF NAVAL TACTICS, which have been published by Father HOSTE, M. DE MOROGUES, M. DU PAVILLON, and others, are of no other service than to teach the manner of ranging the ships for battle; but do not lay down the method of attacking an enemy with advantage, or defending against him in the best manner possible. All the rules given in those treatises are reducible to a few principal propositions, in which all the ships of a fleet are ranged in three columns, or in one line, with the wind aft or large; or ranged on the obtuse angles of chasing or retreating; and that they are of no other use than to inform us how ships are to manoeuvre in order to range themselves in one single line close-hauled, which they have termed the order of battle; and how to pass from that line to any of the other positions before enumerated, which they have called the order of sailing*, and the order of convoy†. Some Tacticians have considered the order of battle in one single line close-hauled, as an order not to
* The Viscount here alludes to M. Morogues, and |
be varied from; notwithstanding experience has proved, that, if a fleet formed upon that line be divided by a change of wind, by a vigorous attack of the enemy, or by any other cause, such ships as are separated can no longer act but as single ships, which have no more any collective disposition, and with which it is almost impossible to re-join, so as to form a new body, and one single will in the execution of a general manoeuvre. Experience has proved again, that, from any of the positions, or orders of sailing in three columns, according to those tactics, it is impossible to pass to the order of battle within reach of the enemy’s shot, without giving that enemy an opportunity of breaking into the line which you wish to form, if he knows how to avail himself of the disadvantageous positions in which the columns must be while they are making the manoeuvres requisite for the formation of that line. Experience proves likewise, that, should not the enemy be able to penetrate into the line, while it is forming, he may, after it is formed, throw himself with a superior number on one of the parts it is composed of, in the van or in the rear, when he himself is to windward, and put it to flight*; because the two extremities of that line are always defenceless, and, on account of the greatness of its extent, it is impossible to repair to either of those extremities, in order to defend them, with the same celerity as the enemy can who attacks them. From these undeniable truths, it seemed to me necessary to deviate from the prescribed rules, in order to find out a more perfect system of tactics, wherein all the chief movements of a fleet should bear a relation to its positions; wherein all the forces of that fleet should be so disposed, that the two extremities of a line of battle had nothing to fear from the enemy; wherein all the squadrons might be put in action without any confusion, either collectively or separately; wherein their separation from each other should no longer be considered as a disadvantage; wherein the movements of each division might be executed within the reach of the enemy’s shot, at the very moment of the attack, without any risk of being endangered by his fire; wherein, in short, all the forces of a fleet should be so disposed as to be able always to attack with advantage, and to defend in the best manner possible. This is what has engaged my attention. But, before I deliver my thoughts on that subject, I am going to shew that the usual order of battle cannot suit either the defence or the attack, and that we are not to look upon it as an invariable system, since the very author who has laid down and fixed the principles of the tactics now in use, and on which all the others have since been framed, did not himself consider it as such. That one order, which offers all the ships in a single line close-hauled, steering in the wakes of each other, very close, is observed with so much rigour, that if, during action, the ships stand not close, and as it were chained together, they are thought to be exposed to unavoidable defeat; and such persons as are persuaded of the necessity of this very close order, are alarmed, and even disconcerted, as soon as they perceive the enemy to have penetrated the line. A variety of causes may, however, contribute to the breaking of it, without its being in the power of the commander in chief, or of the officers under him, to prevent it, whatever may be their knowledge and prefence of mind; such, for example, as the sudden umasting of some ships, which, for that reason, necessarily quit their post; a defect in the construction of others, which, falling to leeward much more than the rest, get out of the line without changing their course or their manoeuvre, and thereby open a free passage to the enemy for dividing the line in every place where such kind of
* The English have, no doubt, judged rightly of the weakness of our line of battle: for, in the various engagements in which I have been during the two last wars, they have directed their first effort on our rear, and upon it without keeping any order. It is even very sure that the defeat of M. De Conflans was owing entirely to no other circumstance but that method of attacking his fleet. |
ships are stationed. Another cause may be, the sudden change of wind, which (especially if it veers aft) may offer a favourable opportunity of penetrating the line before its order can be reestablished. This order of battle is therefore infinitely defective in any case of being merely upon the defensive, since nothing more than an unlucky broadside, the accidental drift of a badly constructed ship, or a sudden shift of wind, may give an advantage to the enemy. Nor is this all. That order of battle is defective in a numerous fleet, on account of the communication of the signals, and the want of facility in giving such orders as are most suitable to the position of the fleet; for its extreme extent may retard the communication of the admiral’s signals, and of course the execution of his orders; rendering it perhaps even impossible; because in so remote a point of view, he cannot judge, with precision, of the distance which is requisite for each different manoeuvre he may order. But let us now consider that order of battle with respect to the attack. The close dependance of all the ships together, from the first a-head to the last a-stern, and which is to render that line the stronger for defence, supposing even that none of its parts suffer from any of the accidents above mentioned, gives it an inactivity absolutely detrimental, when it is to commence the attack. If the enemy is inferior and resolves to retreat, he naturally directs his course to that point of the compass upon which he expects to make the greatest way. It even happens sometimes that every ship makes sail without regarding a particular order of sailing, which might obstruct her flight; consequently the attacking fleet cannot reasonably observe the line of battle in chasing the enemy: for, to come up with him, there is an absolute necessity to croud like him, all the sails, and make courses on such points of the compass as the chased ships stand on. In such a case, the usual order of battle is useless. If you suppose the adverse fleet of equal strength, and disposed to receive your attack, how will you be able to do it with advantage, if you do not fall with a superior number on his rear, in order to try to break his line, or put it into confusion? And must you not, in this case, neglect the usual order of battle? If, in short, instead of falling with a superior number on one of the extremities of the adverse line of battle, you want to prolong your own line to windward, making a line equal in extent to his, from the first ship a-head to the last a-stern; so that each ship of the two adverse lines should exactly correspond with each other; what else can be the consequence of it but an engagement, abandoned to mere chance; an engagement, in which the most able commander in chief may not be able to get any general manoeuvre executed, to save the damaged part of his fleet, but by exposing another to be destroyed, while it executes the evolutions necessary for that purpose, under the fire of the enemy? Engagements of that kind always remain undecided; because, after many blows given and received, both the commanders end by observing each other till night comes on; and the less stubborn of the two seizes that opportunity to set off by some unexpected manoeuvre. Finally, this order of battle, which may expose the attacking fleet to the same inconveniences as that which stands on defence only, arising from the difficult communication of signals, shift of wind, and the uncertainty of sufficient space for its manoeuvres; which does not permit an attack upon the enemy, with superior advantage, without being forced to disregard that very order; such an order is as detrimental in the attack as defective in the defence. |
I am therefore going to propose a new order of battle, wherein the fleet, composed of three divisions, will be ranged on the three sides of a regular lozenge, formed by the intersecting of the two close-hauled lines, instead of being in one single line, as in the usual order of battle; and wherein one of the divisions will always be ranged in order of battle, while the two others, resting upon the first ship a-head, and the last a-stern of that division, will be formed on the close-hauled line opposite, and will stand on checquer-wise*, (or in bow-and-quarter line,) on the same tack as the ships which are in line of battle. In this situation the two divisions, whose ships will steer checquer-wise, will serve to cover the head-most and the sternmost ships of the line of battle, to hinder the enemy from penetrating into that line (should he, from the reasons before deduced, have an opportunity so to do); it will serve to repel the enemy, were he to attempt to double the rear, in order to place it between two fires; and, finally, they will be able to fall, very readily, on one of the divisions of the enemy’s fleet, and detach it from the rest, in order to engage that detached part with all possible advantage. EXPLANATION OF THE HORIZON, AND OF ITS PARTS UNDER A NEW DENOMINATION, AS APPLICABLE TO THIS SYSTEM OF TACTICS.
THE circle of the horizon, for any object whatever, changes necessarily every time that object changes its place; for the object always occupies the center: and the direction of the wind, which seems to be fixed to one particular point of that horizon, changes likewise its place successively as the object itself changes its centre, although in fact the wind continues still to blow from the same point of the compass with respect to that object, when this object does not alter its course. Therefore, a ship, each ship of a fleet, even each individual of that ship, or of that fleet, occupies always and necessarily
*Â As I should not be surprised to hear some seamen exclaim, that it is very difficult for the ships in one line to preserve their posts checquer-wise, and that it must be an obstacle to the admission of this new system of tactics; it will be very easy for me to answer them thus: First, that, if that reason was a sufficient one to reject my ideas, it would be a stronger motive to reject also the usual tactics; since, out of the sixteen positions which serve as a foundation to that system, there is one half in which the ships are ranged checquer-wise. Secondly, that it is impossible to pass from any of the remaining positions to the order of battle, without the ships of each column steering checquer-wise. But, besides, as the order of battle has been determined to be on the close-hauled line, and as, on the surface of the horizon, the compass offers us eighteen courses large against two close-hauled, it is scarcely possible to make any evolution whatever on all that surface, but by following some of those large courses: and one is obliged, so as to be able to range one’s self as quick as possible in order of battle, to steer checquer-wise on a close-hauled line. This incontestible truth being once acknowledged, the objection becomes of no effect; especially if one considers that it will be much more easy, than it is imagined, to preserve the checquer-wise order, of which I am speaking, as the two divisions will rest upon two fixed points, viz. the first ship ahead, and the last a stern of the line of battle; and if each ship takes care only to-keep, in respect to the ship next to and to windward of her, so as to stand in the same line and in her wake, if she is on the other tack, they will be sure to find themselves in a line of battle after having gone about. For the remainder, it signifies very little whether the ship which is to leeward of the other is exactly in the precise point of that evolution: she will be in her right place as soon as, by turning about, she can stand large on the ship nearest to her and a-weather of her; observing, however, that the intermediate vessels of the leeward squadron should not over-shoot the direction of the wind, with respect to the headmost ship of the second squadron; because that is the post of the aftermost ship of that leeward squadron. Besides, each of those ships manoeuvering according to that method, the checquer-wise order will easily be preserved; thus no objection of this sort can be entertained. |
the center of an horizon; this is an evident truth. But, to have an adequate idea of the evolutions of ships, acting singly or collectively, it is necessary to consider that truth as a principle not to be lost sight of. Accordingly, I conceive the circle of the horizon as divided into two unequal, instead of equal, parts; [Tactics, pl. XVI. fig. 1.] the one, in which the ship, placed in the center of that horizon, may easily present her head, and steer on twenty points of the compass by sailing on all the direct courses possible from the center of the horizon towards all the points of the circumference, from one of the close-hauled lines to the other, by removing gradually from the one as far as the wind right-aft, and by approaching afterward the other close-hauled line as she removes from the wind right-aft. The other part of the horizon I consider to be that in which the ship, placed in the same center, cannot present her head to more than twelve rhombs of the compass, on the side of the direction of the wind, when, with the assistance of the helm and the sails, she is made to shoot a-head on that side, without her being notwithstanding able to move herself towards any of those twelve parts of the horizon. For these considerations I shall name the first of these parts, the direct and graduated space: because, in that space, all the courses possible to be steered may be marked by degree from each of the two close-hauled lines to the wind right-aft; and that whoever chooses to go to any of the points marked on that part of the horizon, may steer a direct course from the center from which he sails to the point where he wishes to go, whatever may be the rhomb on which, in that space, that point may be placed. The second of those two parts I shall name theindirect, crossed, and ungraduated space; because, from the sixth point of the compass, on either side, to the direction of the wind, a ship cannot steer from the center to the circumference of the horizon; but, in order to arrive in that part at one of the proposed points of the surface of the globe, she is obliged to follow one of the two close-hauled lines, or both alternately, and steer consequently cross courses, which must necessarily delay her progress. It is from that new division of the horizon into two unequal parts that I shall shew the true mean of destroying the forces of the enemy, and to render engagements decisive. For, if we suppose a fleet so disposed that no more than a part of it should be able to fight to leeward, with another fleet equal in number of ships, ranged to windward in one single line; as, for example, supposing that the three squadrons of the fleet to leeward should be ranged on three of the sides of a lozenge [Tactics, XVI. fig. 2.] a b, c d, e f; the squadron a b, which is most to windward of all, being drawn up in line of battle, cannot be fought but by an equal number of ships A B of the weather fleet A B, C D, F while all the rest remain inactive; unless the ships, which are not engaged, should try to pass to leeward of the fleet a b, c d, e f, which is itself already to leeward. But, if those ships of the weather fleet thought proper to bear away, is it not very sure that the remaining ships placed from A to B, which are fighting to windward (and which cannot fall off like the other ships which are placed from C I to F I), ought, with respect to these, to be considered as a squadron placed in that part of the horizon which we have denominated crossed and difficult, and to which these last ships are no longer able to repair, unless by steering alternately the two close-hauled lines; which would infinitely delay the assistance which the ships of the squadron A B might stand in need of. Now, if, in that case, the two other squadrons c d, e f, of the fleet ranged according to the new system, and which did not engage, come to windward and join with the squadron a b, against that of the enemy which is to windward, is it not certain that the squadron A B of the enemy, which is to windward, might be destroyed, before it can receive any assistance from the remainder of the fleet which is to leeward, from the point C I to the point F I? |
I think, therefore, that the great art of war at sea ought to consist chiefly in endeavouring, by stratagem, or by the nature of the evolutions, to draw or keep to windward a part of the adverse fleet, and to be able to collect all one’s forces against that part. It is an incontestable principle; and it is that which has determined me to give a definition of the parts of the horizon, to render more clear the utility of that principle. It shews me even what an error we generally lie under, when we give it as an indispensable rule always to endeavour to get to windward of the enemy. The ancients, who manoeuvered with oars, had all their weapons at the prow of their ships. They attacked their enemy by presenting a pike which was fixed to that prow, and came to blows after having boarded each other. In order to facilitate such an attack, it was absolutely necessary they should be to windward of their enemy, because the impulse of the wave accelerated the velocity which the strength of the rowers gave to their ships. That impulse of the wave was absolutely contrary to all the efforts of the ship under the lee. If she wished to engage, it was absolutely necessary to dispute the wind with her enemy as much as possible, in order to gain over him a real advantage. For want of reflection this rule has been handed down to our days, when the construction of our ships, and the nature of our offensive and defensive weapons, require us to present the flank instead of the prow to the enemy: and it is what any one will be sensible of; if he compare the advantages of a fleet placed to windward with those of one placed to leeward. They will see that the windward position is advantageous only to a fleet much weaker than that of the enemy, and which is obliged to retreat to avoid an action: but it is of great importance for a fleet willing to attack an enemy with equal forces, who is ready to accept the engagement, to keep under the lee of that enemy; because the ships of the leeward fleet are able to work the guns of their lower tier, which very often are of little, if of any, service at all to the ships fighting to windward, especially after a cruize, on account of the consumption of provisions and ammunition, the weight of which cannot be replaced, and destroys considerably the stability; and because the fleet which is to leeward gives the adverse fleet to windward (if it be beaten) no means of avoiding being destroyed, nor to shelter, from the enemy’s fire, such ships as may be disabled, as that to leeward can do. The only real disadvantage the lee fleet is exposed to, is the smoak which concentrates between the decks: but it is possible to remedy this inconvenience by means as easy to practise as to foresee. OBSERVATIONS ON THE DIFFERENT ORDERS NECESSARY FOR THE DIFFERENT SITUATIONS OF A FLEET.
1. AN order of sailing is requisite. That order of sailing which keeps best together all the ships of a fleet, so that they may, in the most rapid manner possible, be formed in order of battle, ought to be preferred to any other. There is no occasion for more than three orders of sailing. One, when a fleet is to pass a streight; another, when it steers in an open sea, either looking for the enemy or trying to avoid him; or when proceeding on a voyage; and the third is requisite when a fleet has an extensive cruize to perform, so as not to be surprized or cut off by the enemy. Therefore, whatever I propose will be relative to these three objects. |
TACTICS. PLATE XVII.
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2dly, AN ORDER OF BATTLE is necessary; so calculated, that, by a quick movement, the ships of a fleet may reciprocally protect each other, and engage the enemy on whatever side he appears, either to windward or to leeward. 3dly, There must be AN ORDER OF CHASING; so disposed, that all the ships may act at one time against all the forces of a retreating enemy; and be capable of quickly resuming the ORDER of BATTLE, if the enemy, after having retreated a little, should shew a design of coming to action. 4thly, AN ORDER OF RETREAT is necessary; by which all the ships of the fleet may be able reciprocally to assist each other, and prevent their being separated by the forces of the pursuing enemy. That order of retreat is the best which may most readily be changed into that of battle. 5thly, An order of convoy is essential for the safety and protection of merchant ships from one port to another. That which is calculated to extend protection and shelter to these ships on every side, against the approach of an enemy, without interruping their course, must be the most desirable. 6thly, There must likewise be an order of circumvallation; the object of which is to separate from the hostile fleet a part of its forces, in order to engage the remainder with more advantage. That which, being correctly and opportunely formed, can produce an equality between two fleets unequal by the number of their ships, can hold victory in suspense, and even determine it in favour of the inferior fleet, claims undoubtedly the preference. Upon these principles, I shall now explain the general orders I wish to propose. THE FIRST ORDER OF SAILING.
THIS order of sailing consists in the ships being arranged in such a manner, that, whatever course they steer, they should always be in the wakes of one another. This order is that which is, and must be, observed in any narrow road, whatever may be the occasion of its narrowness, either rocks or sands. [Tactics, pl. XVII. fig. 4.] THE SECOND ORDER OF SAILING.
IN this order of sailing, hitherto absolutely unknown, the columns a b, c d, e f, of the fleet are to be formed on three sides of a regular lozenge, and ranged on the two close-hauled lines; the ships of the two divisions c d, e f, (*sometimes to windward [Tactics, pl. XVII. fig. 6.] and sometimes to leeward [Tactics, pl. XVII. fig. 5.] of the third division a b,) are to be formed on two parallels of one of the close-hauled lines in the wakes of their respective headmost ships; and this third divisiona b is to be ranged a-head of the two others on the other close-hauled line, and nevertheless steer checquer-wise the same course as the two divisions, c d and e f. When the division a b shall be to windward of the two others, I will call that order the windward, primitive order of sailing (fig. 5); and if, on the contrary, the two divisions c d, e f, are to windward of the division a b, I will call it the leeward primitive order of sailing (fig. 6.)
* In this the Viscount de Grenier is rather incorrect; for, in fig. 5, the divisions a b and e f areequally to windward of c d; and, in fig. 6, a b and c d are equally to leeward of e f.-Translator. |
This order must facilitate the communication of signals to all parts of the fleet; and it will be so much the more easily observed, when the ships shall gain to windward in the close-hauled line of bearing, or steer to leeward four points large, opposite to one of the two close-hauled lines; for, in either case, they will be in a line in the wakes of their headmost ship. an important observation.
THE position of the three divisions in the windward primitive order of sailing is the same for the order of battle natural, the order of retreat, and the order of circumvallation. That of the three divisions in the leeward primitive order of sailing is also the same for the order of battle inverted, the order of chasing, and the order of convoy. Therefore, in all possible cases, the admiral commanding a fleet need not perplex himself with any other than these two positions on one or the other tack, whatever movements he may wish the fleet to make. The only difference between these different orders consists chiefly in the course which the ships of each division are to steer, and in their positions with respect to the tack on which the fleet is to be, which tack shall always be the same with that of the course to be steered, as in the usual tactics*. THE THIRD ORDER OF SAILING.
IN this order of sailing, the two divisions c d, e f, instead of bearing on the headmost and sternmost ships of the third division a b, as in the primitive order of sailing, may be remote from that third division as much as it will be thought proper for a cruize; and they may be very usefully placed at a very great distance from one another, provided that the ships of each of these divisions shall keep always their respective positions in the two lines of bearing; because they can then quickly reunite at sight of the enemy, and resume the primitive order of sailing, by making, each on their side, the movement which is to bring them nearer. For, if these three divisions a b, c d, e f, should be situated at six leagues distance from each other, they will be able to see over a space of fifty leagues circumference, without the enemy being able to surprise the fleet in disorder while they manoeuvre to resume the primitive order; because the space, taken from the center of the horizon, wherein each ship of the three divisions stands, to the point of the circumference of that horizon where the enemy is discovered, being allowed to be six leagues, each division
* If seamen, expert in the ordinary tactics, will compare the space occupied by the three divisions of a fleet disposed in the order of sailing in three columns, and that which is to be occupied by them when they are disposed in the present windward or leeward primitive order of sailing, (supposing the distances between the ships in the respective positions of both systems to be equal,) they will find, 1st, that in both cases the fleet must occupy an equal superficies; 2dly, that the distance of the two farthermost ships of the fleet, according to the new order, does not exceed by two sevenths that which exists between the two farthermost ships of one of the three divisions of the usual order of sailing; 3dly, that, in the usual system, all the ships of the lee column are to leeward of the leewardmost ship of the fleet ranged according to the new order, and that, for that reason, we may consider the ships in this new order of sailing, as being more connected together than in the order of sailing in three columns, since they are more capable of affording each other mutual assistance. |
(in order to reform) would have only half that way to make, while the enemy must have, to come up with it, the six leagues from which he was discovered, and plus half the way which each divisions has to make in order to join the two others. If, indeed, we suppose the three divisions a b, c d, e f, [Tactics, pl. XVII. fig. 7.] to be in such a position that the two divisions a b, e f, should be at six leagues distance from each other; and that the triangle S, T, V, the two points of which S and V are the two extremities of the base, on which rest the two divisions c d, e f, and the point T the summit of that triangle, where is fixed the center ship of the division a b: should that division a b, steer from T towards X, on the course opposite to the close-hauled line it steered before, while the two divisions c d, e f, steered likewise from V and from S towards X, these three divisions would have each only three leagues to make, in order to join the two other divisions: and therefore, as these three divisions have only each their three leagues to run to avoid the enemy, this enemy, who had been perceived at six leagues distance, has necessarily nine leagues to make, before he can reach the same point. As the greatest celerity with which ships are known to sail does not allow us to believe it possible that the enemy can come up with any of those divisions before they have formed in the windward primitive order of sailing, we may, I presume, consider this third order of sailing as exceedingly advantageous for a fleet when cruizing; and so much the more so, as the frigates may be of great utility to give notice, from a still farther distance, of the approach of the enemy, and facilitate still more the communication of signals, if they are placed a-head and in the intervals between the divisions at the points y y y to windward and to leeward of the fleet*. ORDER OF BATTLE.
THE new order of battle I propose is such, that the three columns of a fleet are formed on the three sides of a regular lozenge, as in the windward primitive order of sailing; except, however, that only the ships of one of the three divisions stand in the wakes one of another, and that those of the two other divisions are ranged on two parallel lines and steer checquer-wise. So that if you want to change a fleet from the windward primitive order of sailing to this new order of battle on the other tack, the movement will be infinitely quicker than those which, in former known tactics, are commonly prescribed to pass from all the orders of sailing either in one line, or on the obtuse angle of chasing or retreating, or in three or six divisions, to the usual order of battle. For it will be sufficient for the ships of the three divisions, ranged in the windward primitive order of sailing, to heave in stays all together, and get on the other tack in the opposite line of bearing, and they will instantly find themselves in this new proposed order of battle; [Tactics, pl. XVII. fig. 8.] and, should the fleet be in the leeward primitive order of sailing, it would be sufficient for the ships of the three divisions all together to haul their wind on the same tack as they steer, and they would find themselves in order of battle. [Tactics, pl. XVII. fig. 9.]
* We may, if we will, suppose that in this order of sailing for a cruize, the three divisions, to be ranged in the leeward primitive order of sailing; in which case it will be easily conceived that the squadron, of which the center ship is supported to windward on the summit of the triangle S T V, may equally be so on the same summit when supposed to leeward of the base; and that the three squadrons will also have it equally in their power to join each other by contrary movements, before the enemy can come up with either of them, or even prevent that junction. Therefore, I shall not attempt to give any demonstration. |
When the two columns c d, e f, (fig. 8.) are to leeward of the third division a b, ranged in order of battle, I shall name that order the order of battle natural; when, on the contrary, these two divisions,c d, e f, are to windward of the division ranged in order of battle, (fig. 9.) I shall name that order the order of battle inverted. The former of these two orders is calculated for a fleet which must combat to leeward, and the latter for a fleet combating to windward. observations on the natural and inverted orders of battle.
IF we suppose that the division, which is to combat to windward or to leeward, can take either the starboard or larboard tacks, we shall see hereafter that it may easily be ranged on the four sides of the lozenge*, and that it can of course face the enemy on whatever side of the horizon he presents himself. But, in order to know, at first sight of the enemy, whether he is to windward or to leeward of the fleet ranged lozenge-like, on what tack, and on what side, the fleet is to be formed, to attack or defend themselves with advantage, it is proper to know that, in both the windward and leeward primitive orders of sailing, the direction of the wind always traverses both the weathermost and leewardmost ships of the fleet; [Tactics, pl. XVII. fig. 8 & 9.] that this leewardmost ship is always placed in the center of an horizon, which is to be considered as the horizon of the whole fleet; and that it is from that ship you are to judge, by means of the rules which are known and practised in such cases, whether the lozenge-like fleet be to windward or to leeward of that of the enemy. If you want to know, at sight of the enemy, seen either to windward or to leeward, on what side the line of battle is to be formed in order to be able to send one of the divisions on that side of the lozenge where there is none, it is the position of the enemy, with respect to the direction of the wind, which is to determine it; because, if the enemy is to windward of the fleet ranged in the windward primitive order of sailing, and, if it bears down on that fleet, with the wind large or right aft, it belongs to its weathermost ship to observe what follows. If that ship, by setting the enemy, finds him to starboard of the direction of the wind, the division, which is starboard of that direction of the wind, is to take the starboard tack, and range in order of battle before the enemy is arrived within gun-shot: if, on the contrary, the above-mentioned ship finds the enemy to larboard, it belongs to the larboard division to assume the order of battle, and to take that tack, before the enemy can come to action; which will be very easy. The old rule for choosing the proper tack is to be observed by a fleet in the leeward primitive order of sailing; observing that it is the business of that fleet’s leewardmost ship to determine it; and the point of the horizon which is opposite to that whence the wind blows is the point towards which the observer is to be turned to judge on what side, whether starboard or larboard, the line of battle is to be formed; because, in that position, the starboard side must always be on his right hand and the larboard on his left.
* In the section of evolutions it will be shewn, very particularly, with what ease and celerity a fleet may pass from all the positions of the primitive order of sailing to the order of battle on the four sides of the lozenge. |
TACTICS. PLATE XVIII.
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By following this general rule, the line of battle will never be exposed to be prolonged either to windward or to leeward, nor on the opposite tack, by all the ships of the adverse fleet formed in one single line, nor even to be surprised in disorder by that fleet while you are forming in orders of battle, natural or inverted. movements which can be executed by the two divisions ranged checquer-wise, and resting the one on the headmost, and the other on the sternmost, ships of the line of battle ranged according to the new order of battle natural; with a comparison between that order and the usual order of battle.
SUPPOSE the line A B, C D, E F, to represent the fleet of an enemy to windward in the ordinary order of battle, on the close-hauled line of bearing and the starboard tack; [Tactics, pl. XVIII. fig. 10.] then, the leeward line a b will represent one of the divisions, in order of battle on the starboard tack, of the fleet ranged according to the new natural order, which the enemy wishes to attack, and to which he believes himself superior, because that division offers a front infinitely inferior to his own*. The two lines c d, e f, will represent the two other divisions standing on checquer-wise on the same tack as the line of battle, and formed on the opposite close-hauled line. On this supposition, if the divisions A B, E F, of the hostile fleet, which have it not in their power to attack the ships of the line a b, wish to fall on the headmost ship a or the sternmost b of that line, they will be obliged to bear away in order to attack the two ships a and b: then it is necessary that each of the divisions c d, e f, of the fleet ranged according to the new order, should make the following evolutions according to their respective situations and to the manoeuvre of the enemy. 1st, The ships of the division a b are to slacken as much as possible their headway, and form a very close line, till the enemy makes a movement to attack the headmost or sternmost ship of that division. 2dly, The ships of the division c d are to make sail till they come under the third ship of the rear of the line of battle a b †, when they will take the same sail as the ships of that division, to preserve that position until the hostile ships make their evolution to attack the rear ships of that division. In this situation the ships of the division c d will be able to observe the manoeuvres of the enemy, in order to change tack and form themselves in order of battle on the opposite board as soon as the hostile ships shall have, after their bearing away, run over a certain space: because the ships of the divisionc d, steering afterwards close-hauled in the wake of the sternmost ship of the division a b, will be able to cover the rear ships of that division, and get the weather-gage of the hostile divisions which are bearing a way; rake their ships; run along-side of them; double their rearguard, and put
* It is undoubted that a number of ships, whatever it may be, cannot be attacked on the same tack but by an equal number of ships, when they are ranged in order of battle in one single line. |
it between two fires, if those hostile ships are following in the wake of each other*; divide it, if they bear away checquer-wise; or gain to windward and put between two fires the enemy’s division C D, while it is engaged with the division a b. 3dly, The ships of the division e f may abandon their post and run checquer-wise under a press of sail on the same course and in the same order they were formed, as soon as they perceive that the enemy falls a-head of the division a b; in order that, if the division A B of that enemy makes any manoeuvre to bear away and fall on the division e f, or on the van of the division a b, they might, by going about, steer in order of battle close-hauled on the opposite line of bearing, and cover the headmost ship of the division a b, double the hostile division C D a-head, or divide the other hostile division A B, which is running checquer-wise on the opposite tack. The two divisions c d, e f, might again manoeuvre another way, in case the ships of the enemy were ranged in one single line, not well formed, or should be in disorder and leave too great a distance between them while they are engaged very close with the division a b. [Tactics, pl. XVIII. fig. 11.] 1st, By putting about the ships of the division e f, and likewise the ship a headmost of the division a b. 2dly, By making at the same time the ships of the division c d tack, and likewise the ship b of the division a b, to keep by the wind, on the opposite close-hauled line. 3dly, By making all the ships of the division a b (which stood between the headmost a and the sternmost b) bear away four points at the same time, and making them also take the same tack as the ships of the other two divisions when they are on the beam of the sternmost ships of those two divisions; because, in that position, the ships of the two divisions c d, e f, might gain to windward, on two parallels in order of battle, in the wake of the two headmost a and b; they might put between two fires a part of the enemy’s ships, which then would be obliged to take the same tack as these two divisions, because the ships of the division a b (which are on the same tack as those two divisions) might prevent the ships of the enemy steering the course opposite to that tack. To conclude, these two divisions c d, e f [Tactics, pl. XVIII. fig. 12.] may manoeuvre in another manner and join both together the rear ships of the division a b, in case those of the enemy, instead of falling on the head of that division, should attack the sternmost b. But this is what we shall see more particularly in the section on the movements of war**, which follows immediately that on evolutions. From this succinct exposition it may be observed, 1st, That, in the first supposition, the way of thus disposing the forces of a fleet is so much the more suitable to the defence of the headmost and sternmost ships a line of battle; as the ships of the division c d, being covered by that line of battle, are able to manoeuvre without any one ship of that division being exposed to the fire of the enemy; that the division e f, the headmost ship of which is e, always presents the side to the enemy, without any one ship of that division being exposed to receive the fire of the enemy either a-head or a-stern, because they are not to range in a line of battle unless the enemy runs large or before the wind.
* If the hostile ships which are not engaged with any of those of the division a b bear away in succession in the wake of their headmost, in order to pass to leeward of the division a b and to put it between two fires, then the ships of the division e f must necessarily take the weather-gage of them, since the headmost of that division e f is, by her very situation, already to windward of the headmost of the adverse ships which are bearing away, and she has the opportunity to come as close as possible to the sternmost ship b of the line of battle a b. |
2dly, That, in the second supposition, the only ships which are liable to be raked a-stern, while they change tack, are the headmost and sternmost of the division in line of battle which cover the ships of the other two divisions. 3rdly, That, in the third supposition, the ships of both divisions c d and e f, manoeuvring under the lee of the division a b, are equally, both during the action and the time of their evolution, sheltered from the fire of the enemy*. On the contrary, these things can scarcely be put in practice in the ordinary order of battle, in which all the ships are ranged in one single line close-hauled; in which neither of the divisions can manoeuvre, to go and assist another division, without tacking or veering under the fire of the enemy; without, consequently, being liable to be disabled by the shot of that enemy to whom it cannot return any. For, if we suppose [Tactics, pl. XVIII. fig. 13.] the two fleets A B, C D, E F, and a b, c d, e f, ranged in order of battle close-hauled on the starboard tack, and the leeward division e f disabled by the adverse ships; how will it be possible for the van a b or the centre c d to go to the assistance of the rear e f, without veering or going about? How will they be able to execute one of these movements, under the fire of the adverse fleet ranged as well as they within range of the guns on the close-hauled line of bearing, without being raked either a-head or a-stern? How could they, in short, assist the other divisions a b, c d, if they had been disabled during the action, without exposing themselves instantly to the very same dangers? It is impossible. And thence it is, that, in actions between two fleets ranged in two parallel lines close-hauled, they are obliged to pay no regard to their weakened part; that the disabled ships of the leeward line get out from that line, in order to shelter themselves under some other ship, while they repair the damage they have received, if it be not considerable, or they run before the wind, by crowding as much sail as they can, when the damage is such as to require much time to repair it. And thence it is, too, that those of the windward line drop a-stern, to get out of the line of battle, and manoeuvre as the leeward ones do in similar circumstances; and thus it is, in short, that naval battles fought in this manner almost† always remain undecided; because, by a change of wind, or the approach of night, as I said before, the less stub-born commander gets away from him who is more obstinate, or they both mutually separate, by the windward fleet keeping the luff, and the leeward one bearing away some points. The result of the comparison is, that the new order I propose is preferable, in this respect, to the ordinary one. But I propose to evince it still more particularly some other time. OF THE ORDER OF CHASING.
AS the order of chasing supposes naturally that the pursued enemy is to leeward, a fleet ranged in the new leeward primitive order of sailing must be in the most advantageous position for chasing, [Tactics, pl. XIX. fig. 14.] by steering large or with the wind right aft, as most convenient for the
* One may readily conceive the movements which might be executed by there two divisions in the inverted order of battle; in which they stand checquer-wise to windward, instead of to leeward, of the division in line of battle: for these two divisions might execute all their movements full as well and as free from the fire of the enemy as in the precedent supposition. |
pursuit; because, should the enemy choose to commence an action after having at first fled, and resume the order of battle, the ships of the fleet ranged according to the new order would have only to keep close by the wind to find themselves ranged in the order of battle inverted, however large might be their course, while chasing; and, should the enemy take the opposite tack, they might equally well present one of the divisions in a line of battle, and form themselves immediately after, according to the prescribed order to combat with advantage, as we shall make it appear evident in the section concerning evolutions. If, notwithstanding, the enemy you wish to chase happen to have the weather-gage of you, the windward primitive order of sailing [Tactics, p1. XVII. fig. 5.] will be the most natural to observe for chasing, close-hauled or large, as far as the perpendicular to the direction of the wind on the board he was first perceived; because, in that case, should the enemy choose to engage after having avoided it, the fleet ranged according to the new order might very speedily be formed in order of battle, on either tack, according to the board which the enemy’s ships would take. This is what will likewise be made more evident in the section on evolutions. observation.
IN this lozenge-like position, it may be observe that the fleet, in the order of chasing, presents the obtuse angle of chasing, as when ranged according to the ordinary tactics; with this difference, that, in order to form themselves in order of battle, it is enough that, in this lozenge-like position, the ships of the second division should all keep the wind on the same board they were standing on, because they would afterwards find themselves in a line in the wake one of another; but, according to the usual tactics, the ships have a long space to run before they can execute the same evolution. OF THE ORDER OF RETREAT.
THE defective extent of the ordinary line of battle, the impossibility of speedily defending the two extremities of that line, the slowness and uncertainty with which the signals are communicated, are as evident in both the order of retreat as in that of battle commonly practised, whether you retreat according to the prescribed method of the obtuse angle, or prefer the line a-breast on the perpendicular to the wind, or whether, in short, you form it in one single line or in one of the close-hauled lines; because all the ships of the fleet, which are steering checquer-wise, are afterwards to form themselves in order of battle in one line, and they never can execute that in practice with the precision and celerity which is required in theory; as it is almost impossible for each ship to keep her station checquer-wise, in any order whatever, with the wind right-aft or large, by observing the rule commonly given. For, should the greatest part of the fleet, being not so good sailers as the rest, remain a-stern at the very moment necessary to range themselves in order of battle, it cannot be executed unless the best sailers, who are to leeward, have brought to, to wait for them, and the best sailers to windward have done the same successively from the very first to the last, in proportion as they arrive in the wake of the former who are lying-to. But, how very difficult is it not afterwards to form that line of battle, when you are obliged to correct the defects arising from the lying-to, owing to the more or less lee-way of ships in that situation! What an advantage has not your enemy over |
TACTICS. PLATE XIX.
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you, if he can attack you in that situation, wherein your ships are all motionless, and leave necessarily between them spaces, which that enemy may avail himself of, to divide your line and envelop a part of it, especially at each of its extremities! I thought proper, therefore, to pay no more attention to that kind of order of retreat than to the customary order of battle; and, accordingly, I propose, as a new order of retreat, [Tactics, pl. XIX. fig. 15.] the same order of the divisions as in the windward primitive order of sailing, the ships of the fleet steering large or with the wind right-aft; because, whatever may be the course, they must be very speedily formed in the order of battle natural, either by keeping all together by the wind and forming themselves on the same tack as the enemy, or by taking the opposite tack, as we shall have an opportunity to explain more particularly in the third section on evolutions. Should any one, however, retort on me the observations I have made on the impossibility of preserving an order checquer-wise, I will answer, 1st, That it cannot be material for more than one division only; while, in the customary order, it is so for all of them. 2dly, That it cannot again be material, with respect to the distances it might occasion between the ships of that division, however near might be the pursuing enemy, endeavouring either to divide it or to attack both its extremities; because the two divisions which are resting to leeward on the head-most and sternmost ships of that division, would always be disposed to defend them, and repel the enemy that attempted penetrating into the line. Finally, I will answer, that, as the division which is to form the order of battle takes up only the third part of the space which is required by a fleet ranged in the common order of retreat, much less difficulty would occur in forming it on one line, and much less time would be employed in performing that evolution, especially if the leewardmost ship first keeps by the wind, making as little sail as possible, and if those to windward take their stations according to the degree of their celerity; and place themselves in the wake one of another without ever bringing to; for, bringing to is the most defective of all evolutions which can ever be put in practice. OBSERVATION.
IN this order of retreat, formed lozenge-like, we may observe an obtuse angle similar to that of the ordinary tactics: and that the ships of the second division, in order to form in order of battle, have only to keep by the wind on the same board as they are standing: but which cannot be performed in the usual order of retreat, unless by a very long and tedious movement. OF THE ORDER OF CONVOY.
THE order of convoy ought to be formed in the same manner as the leeward primitive order of sailing, except that the two divisions which steer four points large in order of sailing, are to steer close-hauled on the line of bearing which is opposite to that in the order of sailing; and that the third division is equally to form itself on the close-hauled line of bearing on the same course as the two other divisions, so that the merchant ships may be surrounded by These three divisions [Tactics, pl. XIX. fig. 16.] and steer afterwards checquer-wise with the wind large or right-aft. In |
this position, (agreeable to the desire of the commander of the convoy, even if it be very considerable, and take up a great superficies,) the escorting fleet will be able, without disturbing the order it is in, to surround it, by means of merely increasing the distance between each ship: but, in case the convoy were to be met by an enemy sufficiently strong to come to action, and who had a mind to do it, then it might perform the evolution we shall prescribe in the section concerning evolutions. Moreover, this order may again be useful should you wish to encompass, or to put between two fires, a part of the enemy’s force which might be separated from the body of the fleet. This will also be shewn in the sequel. OF THE ORDER OF CIRCUMVALLATION.
IN the order of circumvallation [Tactics, pl. XIX. fig. 17.] the ships of the three divisions are to be ranged in the same order as the windward primitive order of sailing, and steer the course opposite to that of the close-hauled line of bearing on which they are formed; because, in running on part of the enemy’s ships, they may put them between two fires and separate them from their fleet, if they pass from that order of circumvallation to the order of convoy, as will be seen in the section on evolutions. OF EVOLUTIONS.
observations.
BEFORE explaining the different movements which the divisions are to perform in the new order of a regular lozenge, I cannot forbear laying down some general rules of the utmost importance. I. The order of sailing on one line is that which is to be observed by the ships of a fleet in going out of any harbour, or anchorage whatever. II. To form that line speedily and without confusion, the station of the ships should not be regulated by the order of the list, or rank of seniority of their commanders, the admirals excepted, who are to keep aside and to windward of the line. III. Ships which are nearest to the mouth of the harbour, or which are most offward, are to get under way first; and those which come successively in that same position, with respect to the remaining part of the fleet which is still at anchor, are to do the same one after another. IV. When the road is very wide, and many ships may get under way at a time, without risk of damage or confusion, they are at liberty to do it, provided that the ships most offward of the road, or of the direction of the wind, get first under way. |
V. After the ships of that fleet are come out of a port or road, steering with the wind large or right-aft, they are next to form themselves in a close-hauled line of bearing before they assume the primitive order of sailing lozenge-like. And, that they may with precision execute that movement, it is necessary that the ship who first got under way should rake the head of the line, and observe not to keep close by the wind before she is sure that the other ships are to windward of the course she is to steer. VI. The ships which, in getting under way, have followed successively the headmost ship, are to regulate their steerage each by their ship a-head, if they be either to windward or in the wake of that ship; and they are to keep always as close to the wind as possible, if they be to leeward of her. VII. Were the ships in the open sea separated by a calm or some other cause, and it were found necessary to resume the order of sailing on a close-hauled line of bearing, to be able afterwards to pass to the various orders of sailing lozenge-like; then the headmost ship of all, happening to be on the side of the tack on which the order is to be formed, is to be the van ship of that line. But, before hauling by the wind, that ship is to set, as I said before, all the other vessels to windward of the course she is going to steer To this effect, at the moment the signal for rallying is made, all the ships are to haul the wind, if the other is to windward of them; or, if she be to leeward, it will be her business to haul the wind, and all the others will bear away and come in succession to form themselves in her wake, manoeuvring, always so as to follow closely the ship a-head of them, either to windward or to leeward. VIII. The fleet being ranged close-hauled in one line, the admirals (who, as we said before, art. II. are to keep themselves to windward of that line) will come and take their stations, each in his own squadron. To this end, the ships which are to compose each of those divisions will manoeuvre so as to leave proper room for their admiral; which will be so much the more easy to execute, as those admirals who are to windward of that line, and who must know not only the number of ships that has been allotted to each division, but also which they are, will be able to repair to the station which shall have been assigned them by the commander in chief either at the head or in the center of their squadron, according to the signal made for that purpose. But, it is necessary that this evolution should be made with a press of sail from the van to the rear, and in succession, that the order of that line be not disturbed, and no ship be obliged to bring to. IX. To range a fleet on a regular lozenge, the division which is to windward or to leeward of the two parallel divisions must be composed of one ship more than either of the two other divisions*: therefore, in all cases, this division will have one ship more than the two others; and, should you wish to know what number of ships are requisite to compose a fleet intended to be ranged in the lozenge-like order, the table of the regular lozenge is in this progression: 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 31, 34, 37, &c. increasing always by three, from 7 to 100, and ad infinitum: so that, with one of those given numbers, should you wish to know of how many vessels the divisions of a fleet are to
* In the customary order of battle the three divisions which compose a fleet are each formed of a number of ships equal to the third part of the whole. The admiral is placed in the middle of the center squadron. If he keeps that station, during action, it is impossible for him to see what passes at the van or at the rear of his fleet; if he quits that station to inspect and judge the effects of the action, he leaves a vacancy: and the center squadron, weaker by one ship than either the van or the rear of the line of battle, more surely be considered as a defect in the formation of the three divisions ? And would it not be more advantagous to have it rather stronger by one ship than the two other divisions ? This advantage arises, in every case, from the ranging a fleet in the form of a regular lozenge; an order in which the admiral, placed in the center of that lozenge, can, as I have already demonstrated, judge with precision of the behaviour of his fleet, and of the consequences of the action from the beginning to the end. |
be composed, first take one out of that number, and the third part of that remainder will be the number sought for, to which you will add the first subtracted unit to compose the second division. example.
IF you want to know how many ships are to compose each division of a fleet of forty-nine ships, you must first take one out of forty-nine, leaving forty eight, the third of which, being sixteen, is the number of which the first and third divisions are to be composed: then, to the sixteen of the second division add the subtracted one of the forty-nine, you will have seventeen for that division. And thus it is for any other number; which must be determined on before quitting the anchoring-place. And, in order that each ship should know which division she belongs to when the whole fleet is ranged in one single line, the van ship of that line shall hoist at the top of the mizen mast the flag marked No. 1, the next will hoist at the same place No. 2, and thus successively all the ships which follow the van ship, as far as No. 16, will do the same, if the fleet is composed of forty-nine ships, or as far as the third of any number. The sternmost or rear ship hoist at the top of the fore-topgallant mast the same flag No. 1, that which precedes her will hoist at the same place No 2, and thus successively all the other ships as far as No. 16, or the third part of the quantity of ships with which the whole fleet is composed. In this way the ships of the center division, not hoisting any number, will be known to be those which are to compose the other division. X. When the fleet is ranged on the three sides of the lozenge, with the second division to windward, the headmost and sternmost ships of that division become the van ships of the two other divisions in all the evolutions the fleet may practise to gain to windward; and they will, on the contrary, become rear ships whenever the fleet shall steer large or with the wind right-aft. If this second division is to leeward of the two others, the sternmost ships of the first and third divisions will become the van ships of these two same divisions whenever the fleet steers large or before the wind; but if this second division is close-hauled, then the sternmost of the first division will become headmost of the second, and the sternmost of the third will be the rear of the second. When the fleet is formed in the lozenge order of battle, only these three are the principal things (whatever may be the distance allotted between the ships) necessary to maintain it; viz. The first, that the sternmost of the third division, and the headmost of the second, should bear from one another in the direction of the wind. The second, that the sternmost of the first division, and the sternmost of the second, be both on the perpendicular of the wind. And the third, that the headmost of the first division should bring the headmost of the second division on the close-hauled line of bearing opposite to her tacks: that the headmost of the third division should bring in the same manner the sternmost of the second; and that all the ships of each division, from their headmost to their sternmost, should bring each other successively on the close-hauled line of bearing opposite to that of their course; so that, were all the ships of each division to steer close-hauled on the other board, they would find themselves in the wake of their respective seconds a-head, and which are to windward of them. This will be so much the more easy to practise, as the headmost and sternmost of the second division, which serve as a point of support to the ships of the first and third divisions, are in a line, and therefore in a fixed and determined position. XI. Whenever the fleet shall be ranged in one single line, the first division then be the foremost; the second will be that of the center; and the third will be that which holds to the rear ship. They might otherwise be designed, by van guard, the center, and the rear guard. |
XII. When you want to change the order from one line to the regular lozenge, you must always put one ship more in that division which is to be at the head of the two others, and to form of course the second division. To execute this without confusion you will make use of the numbered flags, as prescribed before in the ninth article, only observing the following method of doing it. If it be the van guard of the fleet ranged in one line which is designed to be the second division, the ships which compose it hoist no flags; but the sternmost of the line will hoist No. 1, and then, from that sternmost to the tenth ship (if the fleet be composed of thirty-one,) every ship will hoist her own proper number. Then, the ship which precedes No 10 will hoist also No 1, and thus successively up to the tenth ship every one will hoist likewise her proper number; so that the eleven remaining ships of the fleet are those which form the second division. The same method is to be observed, when the rear is the division destined to be the second in the order of the regular lozenge; with this only difference, that it is the headmost ship of the line which is to hoist the flag No. 1, and that those which are next after her are to conform themselves successively one after another to what I said just now with respect to the hoisting of their respective numbers. As for what concerns the center division, what we have already said, art. IX, may be considered as sufficient. XIII. When the fleet shall be ranged in the order of the regular lozenge, the weathermost of the two parallel divisions is to be called the first division, and the other the third. That which is at the head of these two divisions (in whatever of the general orders of the lozenge it may be) is to be termed the second. By these means there never will be any danger of mistaking the commands for the execution of any evolution. XIV. Whenever any of the divisions of the lozenge-like fleet is to pass to a different position, to assume another order, the headmost ship will remain in the same post where she is, and the next ship to her is to become headmost to that division, during the time of the evolution. XV. The divisions named first, second, and third, preserve their respective denominations while they perform their evolution to pass from one order to another, till that evolution is compleated, and the new order assumed. XVI. If the three divisions cease to move in the lozenge-like order, either to make head-way, or go a-stern, to get to windward or to leeward, the number of ships they are composed of is never to be altered, unless the admiral thinks proper to add some ships to one of them, which he will give notice of by a particular signal. XVII. When, from the position in which the enemy is perceived to be, the particular order of battle is resolved on, the divisions should always begin to form themselves in the respective positions of that order, and then they may steer the course most proper to near the enemy. Thus, the ships of the three divisions will have but one movement to make to be in a situation of either attacking or defending. XVIII. When, in the explanation of an evolution, the expression pressing sail is made use of, it is to be understood that such are to be set which will give a ship the swiftness necessary to make her execute with precision the evolution required. It is, therefore, not sufficient to add only a few sails, but all of them are to be set which the ship can carry, and none are to be suppressed till she is arrived at her station. This article concerns especially the worst sailers of the fleet, which are not to neglect setting all the sails they can possibly carry, that they may not cause delay, but preserve their post. XIX. When the fleet, being in one of the orders of sailing, tacks together, it is to be wished, for the precision of the evolution, that all the ships could perform it at the same instant: but as, in |
this common movement, the ships might run foul of each other, it must be a rule that none shall heave in stays before her next a-stern has let go the sheets of her fore-staysail. XX. Whenever, while the fleet is running checquer-wise on one of the close-hauled lines of bearing, the admiral wishes to change the tack, all the ships of the line are to tack (as we have just now said) when the movement of her which is immediately to windward be determined. XXI. In veering in succession, the chief object is, that each ship should find herself at her station after the execution of the movement. Hence it results that they are, as much as possible, to run in the same wakes as the headmost of the line, which will be easily done, by increasing or diminishing sail. XXII. In an evolution when all the ships of the line are to bear away at the same time, the van ships are to take care not to bear away before those of the rear have done it, in order to avoid their mutual running foul of each other. XXIII. When the fleet tacks in succession, the ships are to be very attentive in tacking exactly in the wake of their headmost ship, without lengthening the line: whence it follows that no ship is to wait till that which is a-head of her has compleated her evolution before she herself begins also to tack; and that when a ship wishes to find herself at her post after having tacked, she is to regulate herself by some of the ships already close-hauled on the other tack, if there be any so ranged already, or judge at one glance the place they will take up after they shall have ended their evolution. XXIV. When the order has been so disturbed as not to be susceptible of being restored by a simple movement, the three divisions must form themselves first in one single line, that they may more easily afterwards resume the lozenge-like order: and, in that case, the leewardmost ship of the fleet is that by which the other ships are to regulate themselves to form that line, as has been mentioned in the articles II, V, VI, and VII. observations on the division of a fleet into divisions or squadrons.
THE method of forming a fleet in a lozenge-like order, which I now propose, changes in nothing the division of a fleet according to the established custom. It is true that the second division of this lozenge-like fleet is composed of one ship more than either of the two others. But that does not prevent the sub-dividing of that division in the same proportions as those of the other two, viz. in thirds, because the exceeding vessel of that squadron may several ways be considered as being there necessary. In the first place, she may be considered as belonging to the center division of that squadron, and intended to make it stronger in that part. In the second place, she may be considered as a single ship of the fleet, placed in that post to serve as a guide to the whole fleet, and as a van to the first and second divisions alternately, sinnce the position of all the ships of that fleet is referable to her own, and she steers alternately at the head of the first and the second divisions. Therefore, if we suppose a fleet of sixty-four line of battle ships, besides the frigates, fire-ships, and store-ships, each division will be composed of twenty-one ships; and each subdivision will be of seven. The headmost ship of the second division may, if you like, be considered as a single ship placed there to fulfil the functions I have just mentioned; or the center ship of that division will be considered as a ship adding momentary strength to that second or center division*.
* When the three squadrons of a fleet are all equal in point of number of vessels, there is likewise in each squadron a division stronger by one or two ships than the two other divisions, whenever it happens that those squadrons cannot be divided exactly into three equal parts, as it is the case when a fleet is composed of twenty-eight or twenty-nine ships, &c. |
observations on the most advantageous positions in which are to be ranged the ships, frigates, and transport-vessels belonging to a lozenge-like fleet, whether ranged in order of sailing, order of battle, &c. IN the order of sailing, the admiral is to be a-head of the fleet, at a short distance from the head-most of the second division, and in the direction of the wind with the headmost of the first division. [Tactics, pl. XIX. fig. 19.] Two of the frigates are to observe the same rule and the same position, with respect to the van ship of the third division and the sternmost of the first. In the order of battle, on the contrary, the admiral is to be in the center of the lozenge, and two of the frigates on the south side of the lozenge. [Tactics, pl. XIX. fig. 18.] As for the transports and store-ships, when there are any, their station is to be in one line on the side opposite to that of the enemy, when ranged in order of battle; and, if in order of sailing or convoy, they may occupy the space circumscribed by the lozenge. In any other circumstance these ships are to occupy the different stations appointed for them, that they may distinguish the signals and execute the commands of the admiral. Lastly, when the fleet shall pass from the order of battle to any other order whatever, or from any order to the order of battle, the admiral’s ship is to bring-to, and not to take any of the positions above mentioned till after the complete execution of the movement. HERE the Viscount de Grenier finished his new system. It is probable that they will not supercede the present practice; but, as he has displayed much ingenuity in its contrivance, and ability in its support, as in his work many criticisms are offered upon the system which now prevails, the insertion of his labours was, we trust necessary to complete the subject, and may perhaps suggest hints for the improvement of naval tactics.
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MISCELLANEOUS. |
The Inventions of Captain Edward Pakenham.
[Editor provided detail from image:]
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A PLAN of the UPPER DECK of a SEVENTY-FOUR GUN SHIP,
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TABLES.
OF THE QUANTITIES and DIMENSIONS OF THE STANDING AND RUNNING RIGGING. |
Ships of 110 and 100 Guns,
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Ships of 110 and 100 Guns,
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Ships of 110 and 100 Guns,
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Ships of 110 and 100 Guns,
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Ships of 110 and 100 Guns,
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Ships of 110 and 100 Guns,
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Ships of 110 and 100 Guns,
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Ships of 110 and 100 Guns,
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Ships of 110 and 100 Guns,
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Ships of 110 and 100 Guns,
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Ships of 98 and 90 Guns,
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Ships of 98 and 90 Guns,
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Ships of 98 and 90 Guns,
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Ships of 98 and 90 Guns,
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Ships of 98 and 90 Guns,
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Ships of 98 and 90 Guns,
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Ships of 98 and 90 Guns,
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Ships of 98 and 90 Guns,
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Ships of 98 and 90 Guns,
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Ships of 98 and 90 Guns,
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Ships of 80 Guns,,
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Ships of 80 Guns,,
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Ships of 80 Guns,,
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Ships of 80 Guns,,
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Ships of 80 Guns,,
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Ships of 80 Guns,,
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Ships of 80 Guns,,
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Ships of 80 Guns,,
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Ships of 80 Guns,,
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Ships of 80 Guns,,
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A Ship of 74 Guns,,
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A Ship of 74 Guns,,
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A Ship of 74 Guns,,
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A Ship of 74 Guns,,
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A Ship of 74 Guns,,
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A Ship of 74 Guns,,
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A Ship of 74 Guns,,
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A Ship of 74 Guns,,
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A Ship of 74 Guns,,
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A Ship of 74 Guns,,
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A Ship of 64 Guns,,
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A Ship of 64 Guns,,
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A Ship of 64 Guns,,
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A Ship of 64 Guns,,
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A Ship of 64 Guns,,
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A Ship of 64 Guns,,
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A Ship of 64 Guns,,
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A Ship of 64 Guns,,
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A Ship of 64 Guns,,
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A Ship of 64 Guns,,
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Ships of 50 and 44 Guns,,
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Ships of 50 and 44 Guns,,
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Ships of 50 and 44 Guns,,
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Ships of 50 and 44 Guns,,
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Ships of 50 and 44 Guns,,
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Ships of 50 and 44 Guns,,
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Ships of 50 and 44 Guns,,
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Ships of 50 and 44 Guns,,
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Ships of 50 and 44 Guns,,
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Ships of 50 and 44 Guns,,
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A Ship of 38 Guns,,
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A Ship of 38 Guns,,
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A Ship of 38 Guns,,
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A Ship of 38 Guns,,
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A Ship of 38 Guns,,
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A Ship of 38 Guns,,
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A Ship of 38 Guns,,
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A Ship of 38 Guns,,
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A Ship of 38 Guns,,
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A Ship of 38 Guns,,
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A Ship of 36 Guns,,
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A Ship of 36 Guns,,
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A Ship of 36 Guns,,
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A Ship of 36 Guns,,
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A Ship of 36 Guns,,
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A Ship of 36 Guns,,
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A Ship of 36 Guns,,
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A Ship of 36 Guns,,
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A Ship of 36 Guns,,
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A Ship of 36 Guns,,
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A Ship of 32 Guns,,
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A Ship of 32 Guns,,
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A Ship of 32 Guns,,
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A Ship of 32 Guns,,
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A Ship of 32 Guns,,
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A Ship of 32 Guns,,
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A Ship of 32 Guns,,
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A Ship of 32 Guns,,
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A Ship of 32 Guns,,
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A Ship of 32 Guns,,
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A Ship of 28 Guns,,
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A Ship of 28 Guns,,
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A Ship of 28 Guns,,
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A Ship of 28 Guns,,
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A Ship of 28 Guns,,
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A Ship of 28 Guns,,
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A Ship of 28 Guns,,
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A Ship of 28 Guns,,
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A Ship of 28 Guns,,
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A Ship of 28 Guns,,
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A Ship of 24 Guns,
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A Ship of 24 Guns,
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A Ship of 24 Guns,
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A Ship of 24 Guns,
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A Ship of 24 Guns,
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A Ship of 24 Guns,
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A Ship of 24 Guns,
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A Ship of 24 Guns,
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A Ship of 24 Guns,
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A Ship of 24 Guns,
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Ships of 22 and 20 Guns,
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Ships of 22 and 20 Guns,
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Ships of 22 and 20 Guns,
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Ships of 22 and 20 Guns,
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Ships of 22 and 20 Guns,
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Ships of 22 and 20 Guns,
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Ships of 22 and 20 Guns,
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Ships of 22 and 20 Guns,
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Ships of 22 and 20 Guns,
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Ships of 22 and 20 Guns,
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Sloops of 16 and 14 Guns,
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Sloops of 16 and 14 Guns,
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Sloops of 16 and 14 Guns,
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Sloops of 16 and 14 Guns,
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Sloops of 16 and 14 Guns,
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Sloops of 16 and 14 Guns,
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Sloops of 16 and 14 Guns,
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Sloops of 16 and 14 Guns,
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Sloops of 16 and 14 Guns,
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Sloops of 16 and 14 Guns,
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Brigs of 160 Tons.
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Brigs of 160 Tons.
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Brigs of 160 Tons.
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Brigs of 160 Tons.
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Brigs of 160 Tons.
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Brigs of 160 Tons.
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Brigs of 160 Tons.
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Brigs of 160 Tons.
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[Note: Page missing in source publication.]
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[Note: Page missing in source publication.]
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Cutters of 200 Tons.
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Cutters of 200 Tons.
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Sloops of 130 Tons.
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Sloops of 130 Tons.
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Ketches of 150 Tons.
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Ketches of 150 Tons.
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Ketches of 150 Tons.
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Source.
David Steel.
Last updated by Tom Tyler, Denver, CO, USA, Jul 25, 2024.
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 For Stays, Tacks, Sheets, and Buoy-Ropes, which are Cable-laid, allow the same Length as is shewn for Yarn in the Tables for Cables, which shew how many Fathoms and Feet of Yarn will make a Fathom of Cable, from 1 to 120 Fathoms. – When you have the Sledge to the End of the Yarn, stretch it as tight as you can, and then lay as much Weight upon the Sledge as is convenient to keep the Work tight.